205 10 13625 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/f78412c6d9967dd97af9dc06237b5819.pdf 9462ae6fed8d75c659d509d3930886d6 PDF Text Text LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW ~ VOLUME 1 I , I 1 NUMBER 4 .50 c ts �r t A EHEAD UNIVERSIT S IE E E IE incorporating LAKEHEAD UNNERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CONTENTS VOLUME 1, NUMBER 4, January 1975 EDITOR Dr. G. Harvais Lakehead University ASSOCIATE EDITOR Professor B. Spenceley COMPETITION-PRIZES! ... PRIZES! 3 ARE WE ALONE? 4 by Dr. Richard Reis Lakehead University THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE EDITORIAL BOARD Mr. G. Campbell, 9 by Roland Baird Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. LOOKING AHEAD TO THE FUTURE ENERGY FUELS 14 by Frank Jefferies and Ron Scammell Mr. C. Gehrels, Ontario Ministry of Education. Mr. W. Lajoie, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF MATHEMATICIANS 1974 17 by Dr. P. Mah SCIENCE FICTION OR SCIENCE FACT 19 by Professor J.S. Griffith Mr. J. Palko, Fort William Collegiate Institute, Th under Bay. OPEN UNIVERSITY MATHS 20 by Professor C.F. Kent Mr. T. Reynolds, Queen Elizabeth High School, Sioux Lookout. THROWING LIGHT ON THE PAST OF CERAMICS AND BRONZES 24 by Dr. S.J. Fleming Mr. W. Bilbrough, Lakeview High School, Thunder Bay. THE BORA LASKIN SCHOLARSHIPS 28 CARET IS PUBLISHED BY THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO, CANADA. P7B 5E1 Printing: LU. Printshop Design: LU Media Services THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN CARET DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE OPINIONS OF THE EDITOR, THE FACULTY OR THE UNIVERSITY. OUR COVER was inspired from our article "Are we alone?" and was designed by B. Kaminski �2. SCIENCE P. 0G. .,, 'ME ,r LU THE INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROGRAMME FOR SEMESTER SYSTEM STUDENTS Lakehead is designing a new, and to us exciting, first year Science programme. It is time-tabled to meet the special needs of semester students (February to May). The emphasis is on the unity of Science rather than separate traditional subjects. There are few other examples of such a programme, though much interest in this approach has been shown recently. Science departments from across the province of Ontario met and discussed such an integrated programme a few years ago, but no action was taken until now. The Open University in Britain operates an integrated science course and we are examining their films and programmed learning books. Much of modern research involves tackling problems which may require knowledge of everything from Physics to Biology. We feel that a course such as ours can produce better scientists as well as a vigorous new approach to teaching Science. If you want to be an applied scientist it's a good place to start too. Looking forward to seeing you in February! LETTERS TO THE EDITOR July 23, 1974 In a recent publication of CARET (Vol. 1, No. 3) appears an article "A Geological Traverse Across Africa" by John S. Mothersill. On page 37 it states: "In addition, a visit to Olduvai Gorge where Professor Leaky discovered the bones of Zinganthropus and Homo erectus ... which many scientists believe to be direct ancestors of man proved to be most interesting. Work was still being carried out at 'the dig' under the direction of Professor Leaky's widow." I was under the impression Mrs. Leaky was responsible for the actual find as her husband lay ill in the tent. I intend to undermine neither the valuable work of the Late Professor Leaky nor the find itself but feel credit should be given where credit is due. One small step for Women's lib - One large step for mankind. Yours sincerely, M. Susan McBride, Secretary Thunder Bay, Ontario. Dr. Mothersill's reply: Mrs. Leaky, did in fact, physically unearth the first bones of Homo erectus /eakii. However 'the dig' was under the direction of Professor Leaky and he supervised the 'construction' of this species. It is not so much a matter of 'women's lib' but rather the senior scientist receiving credit for a team effort. November 21, 1974 We should like to express our appreciation of Caret. It is a very valuable publication indeed. We have found that articles have a very wide range of interest and use within the school, not confined to the science and mathematics departments, but including History (Archaeological dating, for example) and English as well ... We look forward to further issues ... We feel we cannot afford to miss Caret. Sincerely, M.S. Dunnell, Librarian Thornlea Secondary School, Thornhill, Ontario I wish to thank you all for writing, and to follow this by a brief note on p. 27. - Editor. NOTA BENE Dr. A. D. Booth, President, Lakehead University, has graciously accepted to review for caret a number of books on a variety of topics, in particular Astronomy, Crystallography, Information Theory and Photography. Why not take advantage of this free offer for expert comments? Send in your books or titles NOW. �3. I I• • • • I I II ETITI A couple of years ago, we ran a compet1t1on to name "Caret". The response was gratifying, we had an almost overwhelming number of excellent suggestions, and we always promised ourselves that we would have another of the same as soon as we could build up an adequate prize fund. Well, we now have a little cash put away, and we are going to spend it on an essay competition. The Faculty of Science of Lakehead University is establishing a new programme, called "Energy and Fuel Science" (leading to a B.Sc. degree) which is sure to attract attention from government and industry personnel officers. We want to couple our competition to the new degree. There have been torrents of words written about the energy crisis, but a dispassionate observer would have to conclude that much of the material we see in the newspapers and magazines is inadequate or inaccurate. Perhaps you can do better! If you think so, we want to give you a chance to express your views, and we will reward you handsomely for an essay on the subject. Why not write one for us? Your essay, which should run to about 3,000 words, may cover one of the following topics: 1. Renewable or non-renewable energy resources? 2. Energy versus Environment. 3. Unusual energy sources. 4. Energy in Northwestern Ontario, present and future. 5. Is Canada habitable? There will be two prizes, each covering the first instalment of tuition fees in the Faculty of Science (but not necessarily in the Energy and Fuel Science programme). One prize will go to an entrant from Northwestern Ontario, the other to somebody from outside the region. There will be two consolation prizes of inscribed writing sets to the value of $20.00 each. The competition is open to bona fide high school students, resident in Ontario. It is not open to relatives of staff of the University. Each essay, which becomes the property of the University, must be signed by an officer of the high school, certifying that it is the unassisted work of a student in the school. The decision of the judges is final. Essays may be neatly handwritten or typed by the student. Professionally typed essays are not eligible. Do not forget to include your address. And, the best two essays will be published in Caret. CLOSING DATE 1 JUNE 1975 �4. E E by: Dr. Richard Reis Because our own fate as a species ultimately depends on our willingness to recognize ourselves as evolving creatures in an evolving environment, we cannot afford to wait much longer before beginning to listen seriously for clues to the whereabouts of intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations, locate them, and try to engage them in conversations ... Committee on Science and Public Policy National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) 1972 At a time of political unrest, population explosions, starvation, and pressing domestic and interpersonal problems, talk of trying to communicate with intelligent life beyond the earth may seem at best, the fantasies of a science fiction writer and at worst, a dangerous attempt to divert our attention from important work here at home. I disagree. I cannot imagine an experience more profound for every individual and for the population of the world as a whole than that of communicating with intelligent life in another solar system. Such communication offers the opportunity for us to develop our human potential in ways that will never be possible as long as we remain alone. Once contact is made, our society and our culture will be completely transformed. Any serious examination of possible communication with extraterrestrials must consider three things. First, what are the possibilities of intelligent life existing elsewhere in our galaxy and of our chances of making contact with such an intelligence? Second, what means are available to enable us to understand communication with extraterrestrials? And third, what are the potential, wide-ranging effects such contact would have on us as individuals and on our society as a whole? Let us examine each of these questions in turn. Until recently the argument for the existence of intelligent life in other parts of the galaxy has been based on statistical grounds. Such grounds still provide the strongest basis for building the case for the existence of extraterrestrials. But two important discoveries in the last decade have L E? enabled us to go beyond statistical probabi Iity alone. The first is the almost certain discovery of another solar system in our galaxy, and the second is the discovery in deep space of chemically-stable, life-forming molecules such as carbon dioxide, formaldehyde and water. First let us consider the statistical evidence. Much of the mathematical discussion that fol lows is based on the article: "Is There Intelligent Life Beyond the Earth?" by I.S. Shklovski and Carl Sagan appearing in the Harvard Project Physics Reader, Motion in the Heavens. While it is possible that in the universe life could exist in forms entirely different from anything we know on earth (for example a life form based on silicon rather than carbon) attempts to determine the statistical probability of extraterrestrial life are based on conservative assumptions. While this necessarily limits our scope, it ensures us that our probability is a minimum and thus gives us some idea of the least that we can expect. Let us ask ourselves this question; what are the number of advanced technical civilizations possessing both the interest and capability for interstellar communication? In asking this question we are eliminating all forms of life not sufficiently advanced to want to or be able to communicate with us. We may be eliminating large numbers, but our greatest interest is in those forms of life with which we can communicate. The answer to our question can be expressed by the formula: In this formula N equals the number of civilizations mentioned above, R * is the average rate of star formation, averaged over the lifetime of the galaxy, fp is the fraction of stars with planetary systems, n0 is the average number of planets in each system with environments favourable for the origin of life as we know it, f 1 is the fraction of such planets on which life does develop, fi is �5. the fraction of such inhabited planets on , evidence that, for example, there are any which intelligent life with manipulative • other stars with planets in our galaxy? The abilities arises during the lifetime of the local answer now seems to be yes, because planets sun, fc is the fraction of planets populated shine by reflected light and because even the by intelligent beings on which an advanced nearest stars directly observe a planet orbittechnical civilization arises during the lifeing another star. But if other planets were time of the local sun and L is the lifetime of orbiting another star it might be possible to the technical civilization. observe the effects of the pulls of these The formula itself is simple, estimating f)lanets on their sun as the sun moves the values for each of its parameters is not so through space. Careful observations over the easy. The methods by which these values are past three decades of Barnard's star, a star estimated will not be presented here. They some 20 light years away, has indicated the are explained in detail in the reference cited presence of at least one and possibly two above. The values, based on the most planets. One of the planets is about the size conservative estimates are: R "'10 stars per of Jupiter and is about 400,000,000 miles year, fp"' 1, ne"' 1, f, "'1, fi"'0.1, f c"'0.1. from its local sun. To be able to establish The multiplication of these factors gives: directly that there is even one other solar system gives strong support to the statistical N = 10 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 0. 1 x 0. 1 x L estimation that there may be at least fifty = 0.1 L. million planets in our galaxy. L is the mean lifetime in years of a It may not be necessary for an extratertechnical civilization possessing both the restrial civilization to want to communicate interest and capability for interstellar comwith us in order for us to communicate with munication. As Dr. Sagan points out "fortuthem. nately for us but not for the discussion we do not have even one terrestrial example. " 1 Furthermore, until recently it was asIf L is very small, say 100 years, then N is so , sumed that the presence of ultraviolet small that we might as well not bother radiation in extraterrestrial space would looking. If on the other hand a civilization annihilate all conceivable combinations of can survive without annihilating itself for a , atoms. But the discovery of complex molecules in deep space indicates that the same million or so years then the value of N becomes approximately one million. That is, chemical concatenations that led to life here there are approximately one million stars in on earth may be underway elsewhere. our galaxy which have planets on which According to Professor Frank Drake, intelligent civilizations reside. This corresDirector of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Centre at Cornell University: ponds to 0.001 per cent of the solar systems Each passing year has seen the probain our galaxy. bility of life in space increase, along with our capabilities of detecting it. Once contact is made our society and our More and more scientists are recognizing culture will be completely transformed. that contact with other civilizations is no longer something beyond our dreams It is important to realize that the above but an inevitable event in the history of is a conservative estimate. As we will see mankind that will occur perhaps in the later, it may not be necessary for an lifetime of many of us now alive. extraterrestrial civilization to want to comBut how will it be possible for us to municate with us in order for us to communicate with extraterrestrials? Actualcommunicate with them. ly "communicate" may be the wrong word. The preceeding argument is based on If by communicate we mean a two-way statistical probabilities. Is there any direct 1 �6. exchange of information, then our chances of communication are slim. Let us again take the most conservative stance. It is reasonable to assume that an intelligent civilization trying to send a signal to us will do so using the electromagnetic spectrum. That is, such a civilization will send signals to us at the speed of light at any of a variety of wavelengths. It has been speculated that the most likely wavelength would be 21 centimeters, that of the natural frequency of the simplest atom, hydrogen. If communication is limited by the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second, then it would take at least 20 years for a signal to reach us from Barnard's star. If we answered immediately it would take another 20 years for our answer to reach them. And it is very unlikely that the planets around Barnard's star have intelligent life. For stars farther away the round trip communication time becomes much greater than the maximum human life span. Although we may want to attempt such an undertaking in the future, the most promising form of communication is "one-way communication" in which we listen to signals from extraterrestrials. This can be done with the use of large radio telescopes. The National Academy of Science panel has proposed such an undertaking. Code named, Project Cyclops, after the one-eyed creature in Greek mythology, the giant telescope would be located on a 3,000 acre desert site 50 miles west of Socorro, New Mexico. The United States government has announced plans to build the proposed telescope which will consist of 27 dish antennas, each 85 feet in diameter and set up in a vast Y, each arm 13 miles long. Mounted on rai Iroad tracks, the V LA (for very large array of antennas} will be easily moveable for sharp focusing. The cost: an estimated $76 million. 3 Of course we should be sending signals as wel I as listening for them, "even" if we do not know to whom we are sending. After all if everybody is listening, and nobody is saying anything, then there will be nothing to hear. In fact, we have been sending signals. Recently a special attempt was made to send a specific message into space. The Pioneer 10 spacecraft launched on March 10, 1972, is designed to pass Jupiter and then swing out of the solar system toward the centre of our galaxy. Although the probability of it being "captured" by another civilization is very, very remote, a special drawing designed by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake and executed by Dr. Sagan's wife, Linda, was etched into the side of the spacecraft. like it or not we have announced our presence to the universe. The symbol at the upper left of the plaque represents two states of the hydrogen atom, and the little vertical line between the two circles denotes the 21-centimetre-long wave of electromagnetic energy that the hydrogen atom emits. Any advanced society, the designers believe, would not only recognize the atom symbol, but understand that the line represents the atom's characteristic wavelength and that it is meant to serve as a scale. Below the atom, 14 of the radiating lines depict pulsars - stars that send out radio waves in pulsed rhythms - and their positions in relation to the earth. At bottom are the sun and the planets; the bent line with an arrowhead pointing to a depiction of Pioneer 10 shows that the craft came from the third planet out from the sun and was ejected from the solar system by Jupiter's gravity. The man, with his hand upraised to show the unique opposed human thumb, and the woman beside him stand in front of a schematic sketch of Pioneer 10 to show their size relative to the vehicle. 4 More important is the fact that as a result of communication between points on earth and manned and unmanned spacecrafts during the past 20 years, we have been sending high intensity signals out into all regions of space. Some of these signals have now reached out 20 light years past the star �1. Vega. Like it or not we have announced our presence to the universe. Now we may ask, how could we possibly decipher a message sent to us from a civilization we know nothing about? It may not be as difficult as it first seems. A message would not of course be sent in some specific language as English or French. It would probably be sent in the form of a binary code consisting of signals that are alternately on and off. The decoding of such a deliberate message is relatively simple. However, it is now thought by many astronomers that what we are more likely to do is to "catch" messages of conversations between members of an extraterrestrial civilization much as they can now catch messages we have been sending to our astronauts in space. The deciphering of these messages would be more difficult but by no means impossible. At this point the reader might well feel that we have taken a much too conservative view concerning the possible forms of communication. Perhaps we should be more bold. Must we assume that communication would be by use of electromagnetic waves? Perhaps a highly advanced civilization can dispense with the electromagnetic spectrum and can send "thought waves" instantaneously to us. There are people who claim to have received such signals. We tend to dismiss such people as kooks, or interestingly enough religious fanatics. But can we be so sure that they are just imagining things? Does it follow that another intelligence would want to send signals to all of us? It is possible that only certain people, for whatever reasons, are sensitive to these signals? The answer is yes, it is possible. But if this is the case then the majority of us are not receiving these messages. For universal benefit it is more useful to concentrate on listening for signals that can be interpreted by everyone. Now let us turn to the last and by far the most interesting question. What effect wou Id the receipt of signals from extraterrestrials have on us? Let us again recognize that for at least many generations to come the communication is likely to be one-way; we receive but we do not respond. Also, as discussed earlier, the most likely situation is one of our "listening in on" conversations between members of an extraterrestrial race rather than listening to signals sent out specifically for our benefit. This makes the deciphering of the conversations much more difficult, but the payoff is correspondingly greater. We can learn a great deal more about a culture by eavesdropping than we can by listening only to what they want us to hear. So what are the possible outcomes? The first thing that comes to mind is the possibility of learning something new in the area of science and technology. Have the extraterrestrials discovered some new laws of physics, or some new all powerful energy source? The idea that we would learn some new technological information that could solve our material problems here on earth is intriguing and pervasive. I think, however, that we should be careful here. It is just as likely that we would be in a position to teach them much more than they can teach us about science and technology. While acknowledging the possibility of learning something new in this area, it should be placed at the bottom of the hierarchy of possible benefits to expect. The most important benefits are likely to occur in changes in our thinking in the social sciences, arts, philosophy, ethics and religion. It will be extremely interesting to simply know how these beings get along, how they spend their time, what they believe, and how they structure their society. It would be fascinating to know not only how we are different but also in what ways we are similar. Do they experience similar emotions of fear, love and hate? The answers could be disappointing on the one hand and refreshing and comforting on the other. Is it possible that only certain people, for whatever reasons, are sensitive to signals from extraterrestrials? �8. It would be particularly valuable to know how a foreign society deals with the phenomenon of death. The problem of death, and for us it is a problem, may be dealt with in an entirely different way by an extraterrestrial community. Whatever way this may be it will give us a useful new perspective on our greatest single preoccupation. Another area of interest is that of beauty. What is beautiful? We know that to us humans who see only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, some things appear beautiful and others do not, but we are not really sure why. Again, the idea that we might share some common appreciation of beauty is as intriguing as the idea that they may "see" far beyond what it is possible for us to perceive. In the areas of philosophy and religion it is difficult to generalize about the effects because they will be to a large extent unique to each individual. But there may be some common denominators. It would be fascinating to know not only in what ways we are different, but also in what ways we are similar. We might ask ourselves, "What the position is of the organized religion on the possibility of the existence of extraterrestrial life?" According to Rabbi Norman Lamm, Erna Michael Professor of Jewish Philosophy at Yeshiva University in New York: Judaism has throughout the ages generally confined itself to the problem of man as the sole concern of God in this world. As a result, there has come about the idea that man is the purpose of the entire universe. This has been a rather general tendency, and never formally incorporated in Jewish doctrine. However, one of the very greatest of al I Jewish thinkers, perhaps the most eminent Jewish philosopher of all time, Moses Maimonides - who flourished about eight hundred years ago - strong1y opposed "anthropocentrism," view that man is the purpose of al_l creation. He maintained that man may be the superior creature on Earth, but he need not therefore be considered the purpose of the universe. In fact, he is not necessarily the most advanced being in world. According to his approach, Judaism today can welcome a remarkable openness the idea that intelligent races, even more intelligent than man, exist elsewhere. 5 Of course organized religion has not always been so openminded. We have only to recall the refusal of the Catholic Bishops to even look through Galileo's telescope. We may ask, what difference does it make? If extraterrestrials are out there, they are out there, and whether or not we want them to be there makes no difference. But it does make a difference. It is the difference between hearing them or just listening to them, between changing and not changing. Are we ready? Some time ago a survey was conducted among the leading newscasters in North America asking them to imagine the most spectacular news story possible - bar none. Some named a cure for cancer, others an international declaration of peace. But the two at the top of the list, far above all others were ( 1} the second coming of Christ, and (2) contact with extraterrestrials. At first glance these two may seem quite different. But are they really? Of course not. Either one would provide a clear negative answer to our oldest of all questions. ARE WE ALONE? References 1. Sagan, Carl, and Shklovski, J.S. "Is There Intelligent Life Beyond The Earth?" Motion in the Heavens, Harvard Project Physics Reader, 1966. 2. Lear, John. The Search for Man's Relatives Among The Stars, Saturday Review, June 10, 1972, p. 34. 3. 1973 Nature/Science Annual, "Summing up the Year", p. 166. Time-Life Books, Inc., N.Y., 1972. 4. Ibid., p. 167. 5. Agel, Jerome, Ed. The Making of Kubrick's 2001, New American Library, Inc., N.Y. 1970, p. 55. �9. The T chin by: Roland Baird In the teaching of science one should "teach the children to think by thinking" and "science should provide students with deeper insight into the logic and methods of the professional scientist" .1 A series of learning experiences for eight grade eight pupils from Shuniah School in Thunder Bay was planned with this in mind. By describing the activities that were experienced, and the results of these experiences, it is hoped that through this one actual example the reader will see how pupils can learn to think by thinking, and how they can gain deeper insight into the logic and methods of the professional scientist, if they are properly guided by their teacher. The Lesson During the first meeting with the pupils we discussed the observations that have been made in the past about solids, liquids and gasses. They recalled that some substances changed from a solid to liquid form, and some from a liquid to a gaseous state. They saw that cooling some substances caused them to change from a gaseous state to a liquid state and from a liquid to a solid form. On being asked why all these things happened most of the pupi Is were very puzzled and it became necessary to recal I the fact that solids, liquids and gases are made of molecules. The first task given to the pupils was to have them formulate their own individual theory on why a solid can change to a liquid or a liquid may change to a gas and so on. The pupi Is were informed that scientists of years ago also had to formulate theories on why these things happened. The pupils were also made to realize that they had an advantage over the scientists of years ago, because they are fami Iiar to some extent with molecules and atoms. The pupils at some time during the learning experience should become aware of f Science what they are doing; "they should come to realize that they are employing processes through which men learn". 2 In formulating their own theories the pupils are learning by thinking, and they are using the methods of the professional scientist. The resulting theories were very interesting and showed evidence of a lot of thought on the part of each pupi I. The pupi Is were separated for one half hour and then were grouped together to discuss their theories. Below are some of the results of their efforts. - "the liquid is heated to its boiling point which will cause the molecules to break up and form a gas" - "and then the molecules are expanded forming a liquid" - "the heat when making contact with the molecules of the substance quickens up the movement of the molecules, by melting them and they become lighter. The molecules are now sort of blended together, lighter, faster and slipperier. This is how a solid changes to a liquid." - Finally, one boy when talking of how a gas changes to a liquid state, in his theory, makes the statement molecules begin to 0 pile onto each other" and one of the girls states, "I think liquids turn to gases when heated because the molecules in the liquid get even more spread out and rise into the air, becoming a gas." The discussion about the theories proved to be perhaps the most beneficial part of the entire lesson. All students were eager to comment on the theories that had been formulated. The pupils were encouraged to realize that, "science is not just a body of facts - very important too, are the techniques used in discovering these facts." 3 Much of a scientist's time is spent on experimental research, and it is often a good idea to work with a partner. This point was given to the pupils, and it was mentioned that by working with a partner you often �10. save a lot of time. One person working alone often becomes too fond of his own ideas and without realizing it, he sometimes does not see, or ignores an easier or better method of accomplishing a certain task. By working with a partner this can often be avoided. It is important that both partners be openminded, and that they discuss many possibilities. Through their discussion they were using the methods of the scientist, and it was good that they were able to criticize their own work and evaluate their own performance. At times it did become necessary for me to moderate the student's opinion of the work, or to confirm it. The Pupils' Second Task The second task given to the pupils was to use the school library, and find out all they could about molecules and the Molecular Theory. They were to work in pairs, and the information they gathered was to be put onto a sheet entitled "What Scientists Know About Molecules". They were also asked to read about some of the experiments that had been done in finding out about molecules. The task was accepted readily by most of the group because they were quite anxious to find out just how accurate the theory was that they had formulated. Here are the facts that were gathered by the pupils. They had met as one group, and under teacher guidance, listed what was thought to be most important. What Scientists Know About Molecules 1. "All matter is made up of molecules." World Book Encyclopedia, (Vol. 13), Field Enterprises Educational Corporation, U.S.A., 1972, p. 576. 2. "A molecule is the smallest possible particle of a given compound. Ex. A volume of air the size of a pin head holds 30 million times as many molecules as there are people on earth." Popular Science, (Vol. 10), Grolier Inc., New York, 1966, p. 458. 3. "A molecule is a combination of two or more atoms that form a particular substance." The New Book of Know/edge, (Vol. 15), Grolier Inc., New York, 1973, p. 236. 4. "Molecules are believed to be constantly in motion, except at the theoretical temperature that we call absolute zero. 11 The Book of Popular Science, (Vol. 1 ), Grolier Inc., U.S.A., 1966, p. 163. 5. "The rate at which molecules move depends upon the degree of hotness of a given substance." When more heat is applied the rate of speed increases and the molecules collide more frequently and with greater force. They take up more space as they bounce farther apart. "The rate of movement of molecules gradually diminishes as the temperature drops. When we reach approx. -273 degrees C the motion of the molecules stops and there is no longer any heat to measure." Ibid., p. 164. 6. Cooling Molecules - "they will move more slowly and they will collide less frequently and usually occupy less space. When molecules move together into less space, the substance contracts." The Teaching of Science by June E. Lewis and Irene C. Potter, Prentice-Hall International, Inc., London~ 1966, p. 138. 7. "The relative distance between the molecule of a substance and their relative speed usually determines whether the substance is solid, liquid or gas." Ibid. With all the information gathered on molecules and the Molecular Theory the pupils could now see what happens when substances change their physical form. They were now aware also, of why most solids, liquids, and gases expand when heated and contract when they are cooled. Some of the pupils realized that their theory had been incorrect, and others saw that some parts were quite accurate. The pupils had played the role of a scientist, and after careful research some had enjoyed partial success and others total failure. The Pupils' Third Task On the third meeting with the pupils they were asked to read over all that they had found out about molecules. The pupils were asked to think of a way (an experiment) of providing one or more parts of the �11. Molecula1· Theory. It was important that they realize that the professional scientist does not always accept what he reads - he often sets up various experiments in an effort to prove a given statement or theory right or wrong. In doing the various experiments, the pupi Is were encouraged to question each other, as they experimented, to clarify their thinking. By this kind of friendly challenge the children can stimulate each other to do critical thinking. Again, the pupils have been encouraged to use the methods of the professional scientist. When the pupils are encouraged to use their initiative in experiences like this they have excellent opportunities to practise the scientific method, and to develop problem solving skills and scientific attitudes. "The nonrigid individual has the ability to see and to state the relationships existing and necessary for the correct solution of a problem. He can take the individual facts under consideration and organize them into a single unified structure. The thought processes are broad and integrated and take all the pertinent facts into consideration in arriving at a solution to the problems." 4 Before the pupils were to begin their fourth and final task, we reviewed everything that had been accomplished thus far. A scientist should be a non rigid individual, as stated above, and the scientist must be able to review his facts, and to use them to help him solve a problem. The pupils had their facts gathered, they had some experiments, and there had been several discussions - now they would have to organize their thinking and use the knowledge gained to solve a problem. The Pupils' fourth Task A drop of ink was dropped on the surface of water in a glass beaker. The pupils watched the ink slowly diffuse with the water. A discussion followed the observations and then the pupils were asked to write down their conclusions. It was encouraging to see that all pupils had concluded that moving molecules was the cause of the diffusion. Some of their conclusions are listed below: - "The molecules in the ink started to spread because the water molecules were bouncing off the ink molecules which led to the molecules mixing." "The ink started to spread out because the water molecules were hitting the ink molecules and forcing them to spread out." - "When the ink hit the water, the molecules in the water started pushing the ink around. The water and the ink mixed filling in the spaces between the mole: cules." Some pupils were able to express their conclusions very clearly - "The molecules in the water are moving about and so are the ink molecules. When a drop of ink was placed in the water, the water and ink molecules hit off each other causing the ink to spread. This shows that the molecules are constantly moving." Some pupils could not quite grasp what was taking place, "When the ink hit the water it began to spread all over and so the molecules in the ink must move fast because the ink was all through the water in just a few minutes." This pupil had the idea of moving molecules, but she only talks about the ink molecules, and neglects to mention the collisions between water and ink molecules. The important thing, however, was that the pupil was learning to think by thinking and she was recalling facts that she had gathered in an effort to solve a problem. She was having some difficulty with the material, but she was experiencing problems that all scientists face. She had seen an experiment take place, and _she wasn't quite sure what had happened. How many thousands of scientists must have had this same experience? After a group discussion it was decided that there was a simple way of proving the diffusion was caused by the colliding molecules of both the liquids - ink and water. Scientists are often not satisfied with one experiment - they often devise· other experiments to prove that a conclusion is correct. It was decided that two beakers be filled with water. Before a drop of ink was added �12. to each, one of the beakers was cooled (put in the snow) and the other beaker was heated over a bunsen burner. The pupils saw that the ink diffused immediately in the hot water. The experiment satisfied the pupils that it was the action of the molecules that caused the diffusion. In the hot water the molecules are moving about very quickly and they therefore collide much more with ink molecules - diffusion takes place almost immediately. As one grade 8 pupil states, "The ink drop in the jar of hot water diffused much faster than the drop in cold water because the molecules were bouncing around and hitting each other much faster with heat, and therefore spread the ink much faster. In the hot water many more collisions occurred than in the cold water." "Most definitions of science agree that science begins with the search for knowledge or truth." 5 The pupils have experienced this search for knowledge as they have experimented with and discussed molecules. They have learned certain facts about molecules, but more important, they have been made to think, and they have experimented, theorized, and discussed just like the professional scientist. In the teaching of science it is important that the pupil not just learn what has been discovered, but how, and by what method the discovery took place. In having the pupils learn the methods of the scientists the science program benefits, "children should make inquiries - the child should have the opportunity to develop his resourcefulness, his imagination, his technical inventiveness and his theoretical reasoning ability ... A science program should be rich in opportunities for the development of the student's creative abilities." 6 Footnotes 1. Science. Intermediate Division Interim Revision. p. 9, Department of Education. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Educational Psychology in the Classroom by Henry Clay Lindgren, New York, London, 1962. p. 149. 5. "How To Do An Experiment" by Philip Goldstein. New York, Chicago, 1957. p. 8. 6. Science, Ontario Department of Education, (Intermediate Division, 1972). p. 9. SOLUTIONS TO PREVIOUS PUZZLES: �THE AVIARY Clues marked with an asterisk involve the common or ornithological name of a bird. A field guide to the birds would be helpful. ACROSS 1* 7. 8. 9* 10. 11 * 16* 18. 21 * 23* 26. 28. 29. 30* 31 * 32* Trailing legs and S-shaped legs identify them (6) A means of propulsion (4) The dendrocopus keeps his pecker up in here (5) One laid a 25 down or two for gentlemen (3) A plant for the encouragement of 9 across (3) A poor flier but expert diver (5) Another 1 across (5) Where waders may be found (5) A phlegmy cry for sale (4) The American symbol of war and peace (5) The attitude of 9across while concerned with 25 down (3) A short healer appropriate to the subject at hand (3) 13 down may easily be this by a bunko expert (5) An ancient Egyptian object of worship (4) A careless walker (3) Wagers driven by bitterns (6) DOWN 2* Birds under street cars (5) 3 down and 5 across* A goat milk thief is a container for moonbeams (5,3) 4 * He goes by in the street (6) 5* He sounds like a slate-coloured dope fiend, more or less (5) 6* Someone entered the water precipitately (4) 8* A witty European fellow, but lacking a tail (3) 12 down and 14 across A left-wing election (3,4) 13* Take away one chump, and you leave another (3) 14. Shove (4) 15* A practical joke (4) 17. This eater is animal but not avian, though it might arouse a flicker (3) 19* The epitome of avian wisdom (3) 20* An admiral sparrow, with a bright ochre-buff breast (5) 22* We are in for a rough sea according to the sound of things (5) 24* To speak plainly about it, a lifter at the docks (4) 26* A leg expander (5) 27. For a treat, a pet budgie may perform it (5) �14. l I AH D by: Frank Jefferies and Ron Scamme/1 Public Relations and Information Services Dept. of Energy, Mines & Resources, Ottawa Energy is a word that has been on everyone's lips during the past few years, especially during last winter with the socalled "energy crisis" in the United States. Canada is in a lucky situation at the moment in that there is a relatively abundant potential supply of energy resources in Canada, enough to fill the needs of Canadians. However, fossil fuels are not renewable and eventually Canada will deplete what she now has as the demand for energy continually increases. Research is going on to find better ways to use our present resources of energy. Canadian scientists are involved in all aspects of this research. PETROLEUM The growth in the use of oil and natural gas in the last 25 years has been phenomenal. In 1950, oil and gas contributed to about one quarter of Canada's energy needs. Today, oil and gas contribute to more than two thirds of all the energy required. But present reserves of conventional oil and gas in Alberta - which provide more than 75 per cent of all Canadian petroleum needs - will soon reach maximum production limits. And with the demand for oil and gas expected to at least triple by the year 2000, it is clear that new reserves must soon be found and brought into production. The most promising prospects for more petroleum exist in the Canadian frontier areas; such as the continental shelves and slopes, and the mainland and islands in the Arctic areas. Deposits of natural gas and oil have been found in the Mackenzie Delta area and also in the Arctic Islands. A 27-company consortium of Canadian and American firms recently applied for a permit from the federal government to construct a pipeline to move the gas from the Mackenzie Delta, along with American gas from the Alaskan E RE E y E North Slope, to markets in Canada and the U.S. Just how much oil and gas Canada has in the frontier areas is extremely difficult to estimate since most of the potential has not yet been discovered, and is only inferred through knowledge of the geology of the areas that are likely to contain petroleum. Geologists who specialize in stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural and petroleum geology combine with experts in paleontology to analyze the sedimentary basins in the frontier regions. It was a 1954 report of the scientists of the Geological Survey of Canada that spurred the present oil exploration activity in the Arctic Islands. Another I arge source of crude oi I is found in the heavy oil deposits in Alberta and Saskatchewan. However, scientists still have not discovered an economical way to recover this oil, which cannot be brought to the surface by conventional means as it will not flow. There is a potential for large future production from these deposits; for instance, once the technology has been developed, a possible 30 billion barrels might be recoverable, almost three times as much as the present proven Canadian reserves. Considerable research on the heavy oi I deposits has been carried out with one oi I company working for ten years to develop an efficient system. Pilot-plant projects using the best method developed to date steam injection - have been undertaken. This method reduces the viscosity of the oil allowing it to be recovered by conventional methods, Despite all the scientific work that has been carried out, the estimates of the oil and gas that may be found and recovered differ widely. However, the federal government's "ENERGY ANALYSIS", that was released in June 1973, estimated that Canada has enough conventional oil and gas to serve her own needs to beyond the year 2000. After that, oi I from oi I sands, and oi I and gas from coal will be needed to meet domestic �15. requirements, and will be sufficient until at least the year 2050. SYNTHETIC FUELS The Athabasca Oil Sands The possible key to the future of Canada's oil development lies under the jack pine and muskeg east and west of Athabaska River in northeastern Alberta. Here are found the Athabasca tar sands from which an estimated 300 billion barrels of oil might be recovered if the technology can be developed to extract the oil from the deep deposits. This vast amount of oil is about six times the total proved reserves of conventional oil in North America and is comparable to the present probable reserves in the Middle East. Explorer Peter Pond in 1788, while looking for a site for a Hudson's Bay Company post, noticed that the Indians used the gooey sands to patch their canoes. One hundred years later a federal government geologist from the Geological Survey of Canada reported on the sands. This was followed in 1897 by the first of many unsuccessfu I wel Is. It has only been since the 1960's that a concerted effort has been made to recover the synthetic crude. At the present open-pit mining is used to remove the tar sands, which are then processed to extract the oil. However, only a relatively small portion about 30 billion barrels-of the crude can be recovered by this method and the remainder of the Scientists from both government and industry have been investigating ways to extract the oil, similar to those envisaged for recovery from the heavy oi I deposits. Instead of the picks and shovels of the old prospectors the modern tar sands developers are using massive pieces of machinery, such as the bucketwheel excavator that is over 100 feet high. These excavators can handle over 6,000 tons of material an hour. Scientists have had to develop special metal for this equipment, to withstand the extreme wear and tear of the abrasive sand and temperatures ranging from 90 degrees above in summertime to 60 degrees below in winter. More than two dozen oil companies hold leases in the Athabasca tar sands but only one is in operation at present. Great Canadian Oil Sands Limited (GCOS), has been producing syncrude since 1967 but will be joined by a minimum of three more plants in the next ten years. GCOS produces about 50,000 barrels a day. A consortium, Syncrude Canada Limited, is pl~_nning to produce 125,000 barrels a day; and a third operator, Shell Canada Limited, 100,000 a day. Coal Gasification Potential fuels for the future are synthetic gas and oil made from coal. By reacting coal with water and heat, it is possible to obtain methane gas and oil. In theory, coal gasification presents an attractive alternative to coal as a fuel because oi I and gas are relatively clean burning, and Canada has a Iarge resource base of coal. However, there are many scientific and technical problems to be overcome. The technology for coal gasification has come a long way from the crude techniques used in the early 19th century to provide gas lighting in the streets and homes in Europe. Gasification in those days produced a gas with a low heat value. Modern gasification techniques can produce a heat value that compares to that of natural gas. The costs for full-scale development, however, are so high that gas and oil prices have to rise sharply to make the process possible on a large combustion heating it is cheaper to burn directly oil or coal than it is to produce synthetic oil and gas from coal. But, with tighter environmental controls and rising oil and gas prices, coal gasification could be an important energy source in the future. Added to the problem of the high costs of gasification is the limit on availability plant sites. Canada may have only five areas with enough water and readily available coal to make gasifiation plants feasible. Although Canada's estimated coal reserves of 120 billion tons may seem like an unlimited supply, just how much is available technically and economically has not yet been defined. �16. ATOMIC ENERGY Nuclear power, fueled by the abundant supplies of Canadian uranium, promises to be the dominant source of future energy in Canada. Of all the electricity produced in Canada today, only three per cent comes from nuclear power, with hydroelectricity supplying 75 per cent and fossil fuel plants supplying 22 per cent. But by the year 2000, it is estimated that at least 40 per cent of all electrical energy will come from nuclear generating stations. By the year 2050, Canada will have moved into the era of the "electrical society" with about 90 per cent of al I energy needs supplied by electricity, compared to about 25 per cent today. And that electricity will come primarily from nuclear power. The CANDU Reactor The unique CANDU (Canadian Deuterium Uranium) nuclear reactor, designed and built in Canada, is a proven source of nuclear power that is now attracting worldwide attention. Unlike most other reactors, CANDU uses natural uranium as a fuel, and so avoids the need for uranium enrichment plants. Proven Canadian resources of natural uranium are sufficient for at least the next 100 years. And, as improvements are made in the CAN DU design, nuclear fuel resources can be utlized for an appreciably longer period in the future. Compared to the cost of the fossil fuels, uranium is cheap. One cent's worth of natural uranium produces about 25 kilowatt hours of electricity compared to about 2 Kilowatt hours for one cent's worth of coal or oil. Also, the energy potential of uranium is enormous. One pound of the uranium used in the CANDU reactor releases the same amount of energy as 27,000 pounds of coal, or 2,200 gallons of fuel oil. With the efficient natural uranium cycle that is possible with the CANDU reactor, there is no current economic incentive to reprocess the spent fuel, which is stored in water-filled bays at the nuclear power plant. If, on the other hand, the spent fuel was reprocessed, there would be the problem of storing the waste radioactive isotopes. Despite the many advantages of Canada's nuclear power progrnm, it is not without its cha Ilenges. Si nee most of the waste heat from a nuclear plant is released into the cooling water of surrounding rivers and lakes, thermal discharges require careful disposal techniques and continued attention. Nuclear power has already begun to flex its muscles in Canada. The first full-scale nuclear power station in Canada at Pickering, Ontario, for many months has been producing more electrical power than any other nuclear power station in the world, even though the capacity of some stations is greater. Its four nuclear reactors have a capacity of 2,160,000 kilowatts - enough to supply almost 2 million homes. Two smaller prototype nuclear power stations are operating in Ontario, and another was constructed earlier in Quebec. Under construction now on the shores of Lake Huron in Ontario is a large scale nuclear complex, the Bruce Nuclear Power Development. The first 750,000 kilowatt commercial CANDU reactor will become operational in 1975, to be followed by seven others for a total planned output exceeding 6,000,000 kilowatts. Other stations will be built in Quebec and New Brunswick and before long nuclear power plants will be located in other Canadian provinces. NEW SOURCES OF ENERGY Eventually completely new sources of energy must be found. All fuels, even the abundant supplies of uranium, are finite resources, and once used, cannot be replaced. Many possibilities for energy in the future are now being researched, although large-scale development of these unconventional sources of energy is many years away. Except for fission and fusion the ultimate source of energy is solar power. So great is the energy potential of the sun that it could theoretically provide virtually unlimited supplies of energy. Already solar power is a reality in the U.S. space program but, before mass generation is possible, many technological obstacles must be overcome. There has been some Canadian research on solar power, primarily by the Brace �17. Research Institute of McGill University. This has covered such facets as the heating of water, cooking, desalination, greenhouses and the drying of agricultural products. The Brace Research Institute is also active in research on wind power for provision of electricity in remote areas as well as for water. The National Research Council and the University of Sherbrooke have also carried out work on this aspect of energy. Another potential source of large amounts of energy is fusion power. Instead of generating energy by the splitting of atoms as today's nuclear power stations do, fusion power generates energy by combing light atoms of hydrogen. Fuel for this fusion process is an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium which exists in the oceans of the earth. If one per cent of the concentration of deuterium were withdrawn from the oceans, the energy that could be release9 by fusion would amount to 500,000 times the energy of the world's initial supply of fossil fuels. Again, however, the problems of controlled fusion are difficult and a solution is decades away. Canada is not active in research in this field but a study is under way to determine the possibility of establishing a Canadian program to control nuclear fusion. Scientists at the Valcartier establishment of the Defence Research Board have carried out extensive research on lasers and their application, one of which could possibly be used in control of nuclear fusion. A renewable resource that has been receiving much attention, particularly in Canada is tidal power. The Bay of Fundy on Canada's east coast has a great potential for electrical generation, although nowhere near the potential of solar power or fusion power. The costs at present, however, seem too great for commercial development. Canadian scientists are in the forefront of research for new energy sources and will continue in this role in the future. The International Congress of Mathematicians 1974 by: Dr. P. Mah Lakehead University, Thunder Bay The International Congress of Mathematicians, held every four years, recently brought together approximately 7000 mathematicians and their families from around the world to the campus of the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, B.C. The Congress opened on the 21st day of August and lasted for 9 days. Since one of the primary aims of the Congress was to promote personal contacts among mathematicians over the world, the organizers, chaired by Professors R.D. James and M. Sion of the University of B.C., have tried to integrate the scientific and social aspects of the programme. Efforts had been made to provide individuals with frequent opportunities to meet and exchange ideas in congenial surroundings. There was general agreement among the Fe! lows of the Con- gress that the unique setting and the peaceful atmosphere of the campus of UBC have contributed greatly to the achievement of this goal. With the same goal in mind, the organizers had decided to break tradition by not setting aside Sunday as a tour day but rather, instead, scheduled a series of daily tours, barbecues and picnics for relatively small groups throughout the Congress. And although formal lectures were scheduled throughout the days of the Congress, participants usually could find at least a couple of days in which no formal sessions in their area of interest would be given. All formal lectures were held at the University of B.C. However, the University of Victoria and Simon Fraser University held open house for mathematicians during the Congress. In addition to this, seminars on Probabilistic Methods in Differential Equations, Mathematical Logic, some aspects of Applied Mathematics, and Graph Theory were held in these universities. �18. There were 17 invited expository addresses of one hour duration. These were given by top men in their fields. Each address was intended to inform members of the Congress about the general evolution of mathematics in some major area and should be understood by most mathematicians working in other fields. These addresses were given in a theatre and were televised live through the campus. Moreover, the addresses were recorded on videotape and may be replayed at any convenient time. Addresses of a more specialized nature were given by 160 invited speakers. These lectures, of 45 minutes duration, were intended to present developments in more specialized fields, and were. likely to be more technical. Again, these lectures were delivered by top people in their fields and their audience consisted mainly of those working in their area of interest. As well, there were approximately 700 short communications of 15 minutes duration given by the delegates. These communications contained the results of their mathematical research. In addition to these formal lectures, numerous informal seminars and discussions were arranged on individual basis. One of the highlights of the Congress was the open ceremonies, including the announcement of the winners of the Fields Medals Awards, at the Queen Elizabeth Theatre in downtown Vancouver. The Fields Awards was named after the Canadian mathematician J.C. Fields. The award is given for top contributions made by young mathematicians (aged below 40) in their research. Although the award consists of a gold medal and a cash prize of $1000, mathematicians all over the world have come to value the award as an equivalent of a "Nobel Prize" in mathematics. The idea of the award was first proposed in Toronto, 1924. Two awards were made at each Congress since 1936, but the organizers of the Moscow Congress in 1966 and those of the Nice Congress in 1970 found it difficult to select only two winners and so they raised the number to four (which perhaps indicated that tremendous progress has taken place in mathematics in the last two decades). This year, the winn~rs were Professors Enrico Bombieri, University of Pisa, Italy and David Mumford, Harvard University. A more comprehensive list of past winners will appear at the end. The last day of the Congress was August 29 and during the closing ceremonies it was announced that the next Congress will be held in Helsinki in 1978. Attending the Congress from Lakehead University were Professors W. Allaway, A. Day, W. Eames, C. Kent, P. Mah, S. Naimpally and J. Whitfield. Professor Allaway presented a paper entitled "The Representation of Orthogonal Polynomials in Terms of a Differential Operator Containing Their Generating Function", while Profes- sors Day and Whitfield chaired a section of the Congress. Prior to the Congress, mathematics departments across Canada held open house for foreign mathematicians enroute to the Congress. Visiting Lakehead University for five days was Professor Ivan Singer, Head of Section of Functional Analysis and Geometry, Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Bucharest, Romania. Professor Singer is considered to be one of the leading authorities on the Theory of Best Approximation and the Theory of Bases. He has written numerous articles and books on the subjects. While he was here, he presented a colloquium talk entitled "On Best Approximation in Normal Linear Spaces". List of Fields Medallists Oslo, 1936 ...................... Lars Ahlfors Jesse Douglas Cambridge, Mass., 1950 ........ Laurent Schwartz Atle Selberg Amsterdam, 1954 ............ Kunihiko Kodaira Jean-Pierre Serre Edinburgh, 1958 .......... Klaus Friedrich Roth Rene Thom Stockholm, 1962 ............... Lar Hormander John Milnor Moscow, 1966 ............... Michael F. Atiyah Paul J. Cohen Alexander Grothendieck Stephen Smale Nice, 1970 ....................... Alan Baker Heisuke Hironaka S.P. Novi kov John G. Thompson Vancouver, 1974 .............. Enrico Bombieri David Mumford �19. • science by: Professor J.S. Griffith lakehead University, Thunder Bay Read through the topics listed below, then decide which are ideas of science fiction authors and which have been proposed in scientific journals. (a) Life on Mars (b) Alteration of the rotational axis of Mars so that more earth-like conditions exist on the planet (c) Life on Titan (a satellite of Saturn) (d) Manned space missions to comets and asteroids (e) Millrons of planets moving through space unattached to stars {f) Millions of planetary systems in our galaxy, with a high proportion of them inhabited. All these ideas have been taken from reputable scientific research journals for professional astronomers. 'Towards a more habitable Mars - orthe coming Martian spring' was the title of the paper that contains ideas (a) and (b). Recent observations of Mars (Mariner 9 and other probes) have shown us features which are at present only explainable in terms of the flow of water at some time in the not too distant past. There are a large number of dried-up 'river beds' sharply concentrated towards the equator of Mars, indicating that the climate of Mars was at one time more Earth-like with flowing surface liquid water. Calculations show that a fifteen per cent increase in the heat absorbed by the polar ice caps of Mars would release sufficient carbon dioxide to increase the atmospheric pressure and hence the climatic circulation and prevent the ice caps (of carbon dioxide overlying water ice} from reforming. Four mechanisms for the ice ages of Mars are possible. (i) changes in the amount of heat produced by the Sun (ii) changes in the orientation of the rotational axis of Mars (iii) polar wandering, bringing the ice caps into warmer regions of the planet (iv) dust gradually covering the ice caps, increasing the amount of absorption of energy (like the sinking of dirt into snow banks). Spores are known to exist for very long periods of time on the Earth, and if the excessive evolutionary pressure that Mars would exert has produced life spores that survive through an ice age to the next warm period, triggered into activity by the melting of the permafrost, then life on Mars may exist. Two of the experiments on the Viking landers involve the addition of water to samples brought into the spacecraft, and may reveal the presence of such spores. There is a discrepancy between the predicted rate of arrival of solar neutrinos and the observed value, and it is suggested that this discrepancy is due to expansion of the solar core. There is a suggestion of such expansion (and consequent variation in brightness) in observations of other stars, • and to the extent that climatic change produced by major solar variability produced major evolutionary advances on the Earth, comparable biological evolution could have occurred on all other inhabited planets in the Galaxy. Population pressure on the Earth may • lead to the desire to populate other planets. To make Mars habitable before the expected spring which is expected in about 10,000 years, it is proposed to move asteroids close to Mars, so that their gravitational field tips • the poles of Mars and moves the ice caps into. warmer areas. The energy for this movement of asteroids would come from solar radiation. Titan - a greenhouse Life on Titan is suggested because it has a greenhouse atmosphere. Unlike the Venusian and terrestrial atmosphere greenhouses where carbon dioxide is a prominent factor, on Titan hydrogen plays a dominant role, with surface temperatures as high as 200K and abundant organic compounds in the clouds, atmosphere and surface. Biological action under these circumstances is by no �20. means out of the question, and Mariner flyby missions or even landings are proposed. Planetary systems around other stars are difficult to detect, and the suggestion that Barnard's star has planets has been questioned. However it is proposed that the majority of single main-sequence stars of spectral type later than F5 possess planetary systems, because these stars have slower rotational rates than 0, B and A stars. The slowing of rotation is due to magnetic linkage with a surrounding disk of protoplanetary material. Many such disks have been observed, and it is probable that we are witnessing the formation of a large number of planetary systems. In some cases a part of the proto-planetary material acquires a spin sufficient for it to be detached from its gravitational orbit around the star, and from these fragments and from conglomerations of dust and gas insufficient in mass to form both planets and stars, the existence of planet-like objects, unattached to stars, exceeding stars in number, is deduced. Life on Comets? We still do not know precisely how our 0 en own solar system evolved, and cometary and asteroidal material is thought to represent the Rosetta stone to our understanding of the evolution of the solar system, being virtually uncontaminated primeval material. A recent NASA report contains the quotation that possibly "comets even harbor very primitive forms of live organisms". Flyby missions, followed by sample collection would greatly increase our knowledge. "The ultimate in small body exploration would be a manned mission." Flyby missions would, for example, let us·decide which asteroids were spoiled by internal heating, differentiation and the effects of shock waves and heat changes with no clues left as to how they were formed. In these six areas, science fiction is becoming science fact. Man's imagination is ofte.n limited to extrapolation of accepted scientific facts, so it is not really surprising that many of these extrapolations are becoming overtaken by the march of science. After all, in the nineteenth century any form of powered flying machine would have been science fiction. niversity by: Professor C. F. Kent Lakehead University, Thunder Bay In the spring of 1974 Lakehead University's Department of Mathematical Sciences decided to offer three of its first year courses by use of Open University course materials. The Open University in Britain is a full degree-granting university operating for off-campus "extension" students. The O.U. makes extensive use of television and radio and operates regional tutorial centres in many parts of Britain. The faculty of the O.U. has produced much high quality educational material and it is interesting to test their booklets and films in the Canadian context. aths The Ministry of Colleges and Universities through its Committee on Instructional Development, assisted the Department of Mathematical Sciences with the cost of purchase of some of the necessary equipment, and sections of three courses, Math 1160, 1181 and 1281 are being offered this year via the O.U. pathway. Two sections of M1181, Calculus and Algebra (with computer) and one section of M 1281, Introduction to Pure Math are in progress on the Thunder Bay campus. An extension section of M1281 is in progress in Dryden, and other off-campus students are using O.U. materials to study the calculus. All of these students will be �21. scheduled to meet with L.U. math faculty members regularly during the year. In Britain, the Open University telecasts twice each week a 25 minute film for the lesson unit under study that week. There are also radio tapes broadcast each week. At two-week intervals British students meet a tutor for a one-hour help session at a regional resource centre. The O.U. math instructors generally feel that students could use more help than they get. The Open University admits any applicant who is 21 years old to any of its programs of study, without regard to academic prerequisites. The success rate of their students in non-science courses is quite high, while in science courses success rates fall off. Unfortunately, in mathematics the success rate is lowest. This only points up something that most of us already know, that mathematics is a subject which people have difficulty learning, for a variety of reasons. But, the O.U. experience has also shown that the students who complete their program compare well with graduates of other British universities. The L. U. Department of Math Sciences is well aware of the help that many students require with math, and it tries to establish a firm contact between students using the O.U. materials and mathematics staff. The O.U. films for the courses offered are owned by L.U. and are used to supplement the texts written by the O.U. course teams for each lesson unit. Unfortunately it is not technically possible, nor financially feasible to telecast these films in N.W. Ontario. The course texts are independent of the films, but the films are a valuable supplement to the texts and provision is made for offcampus students to see the films. The O.U. course teams have made very effective use of the film medium to present background material which is too time consuming and costly for an individual math instructor to prepare. Interviews and short film documentaries on the applications of math in the everyday world, elaborate and effective models and devices for illustrating mathematical ideas, and effective use of computer graphics are intermixed in the films. Mathematics in today's world is a vital and changing subject. There was a major change in mathematics teaching which generally acquired the name "new math". That name meant that the infusion of unifying ideas from set theory devised in the 19th century finally caught on in school teaching in the middle of the 20th century. But, that is now yesterday's story. There is a "newer math", and that is computational math. The O.U. math materials are prepared to emphasize the importance of computations which were not possible several years ago, but can now be performed by the rapidly growing generation of computers which will soon be available nearly everywhere. Many such computational procedures can be carried out on the very small calculators and should be introduced to anyone who intends to use or teach math. One example of the O.U. approach to this subject will conclude this account. For many years, in fact centuries, it was necessary to develop mathematical techniques to short circuit calculation. Such formulas as the "quadratic formula" for solving equations like AX 2 + BX + C O do this very effectively by writing ( 1) X == -B+ /8 2 - 4AC (2) 2A Unfortunately, other classes of equations do not submit to this kind of treatment. An equation like SIN (X) - X 1-5 0 (3) would, until recently, have been regarded with horror by generations of math users. To the computer age student, equation (3) is no more troublesome than equation (1 ), and there are several very simple ideas for its computer solution. Equation (3) can be rewritten as (4) X == (SIN X)Lf.3 and what equation (4) "says" is that we want a value for X which is unchanged by 2 the calculation of the right side, (SIN X) l3. Such values can often be found by guessing an initial value, X 1 , passing X 1 through the calculation (SIN X)2'3 to get a better value �22. X 2 , and by repeating this process until a stable value of X is found. Stable means that the number X, expressed to as much accuracy as we are interested in, emerges unchanged from the calculation box. The procedure is summarized in the diagram. this procedure is given below. It is written in the APL computer language used on the LU computer, but the thing to note is how short and concise the instructions to the computer are. There is also a computer printout of a solution to equation (3), to 5 decimal place accuracy. The same solution was carried out on a hand-held Texas Instrument calculator, in the same number of steps, in 70 seconds. A short computer program which performs APL INSTRUCTION f/ [l] [2] [3] [4] (5] (6] K SOLN X XN+X XN XM+-(1 oXN) *2¾3 +( ( ( IXN-XM) )!;K) /0 XN+XM +2 V . 00001 SOLN 1.0 EXPLANATION [l] [2] (3] [4] (5] [6] Choose X as first guess Print the current value 2;. Computethe function (SIN(XN)) 3 If the difference in the last two values is ::;K, stop Change the guess to the new value from [3] Go back to line [2]. Starting with a guess of 1, compute to accuracy .00001 . 1 0.8913044954 0.8458231997 0.8243934626 0.813800048 0.8084452283 0.8057085975 0.8043022638 0.803577518 0.8032034828 0.8030103024 0.8029104907 0.8028589102 0.8028322518 0.8028184731 The "convergence" of the successive test values to a solution to equation (3) which the above table illustrates, is one of the cornerstone ideas of the calculus. Introducing the calculus student to the idea behind the computer solution not only teaches him a useful computational technique, but helps him to understand one concept of the calculus in a concrete situation. �UNITS ACROSS 1. The Canadian body responsible for metrication (6, 10) 8. 1/100 chain (NOT an SI Unit) (4) 9. 1/12 of this carbon entity is 1 u (4) 10. A quality measured in kg m·3 (7) 13. la (4) 15. The old name for 1 fm (5) 16. Happenings without units (6) 19. A width (4) 21. The general term for a creative mental exercise (4) 22. Anti-front? (4) 23. 10·18 (4) 24. The consumption of this device is normally measured in kWh (6) 25. The units of this might be m km·1 (5) 26. 100 fm 2 - not SI. (4) 29. 104 m2 (7) 32. A low pH (4) 33. Fishy non-SI measure of capacity (4) 34. Children here now will be accustomed to SI Units (10,6) .DOWN 1.. A loose way of describing a plane figure of area 10· 6 m2 (10,6) 2. Factors for metric units (4) 3. Hurrah! for SI Units? (5) 4. Units of electrical resistance (4) 5. The quality characteristic of mass (6) 6. A very small amount - but not an SI Unit (4) 7. The answers to metric calculations, excluding the units (9,7) 11. The base of SI multiples (7) 12. The quality measured in JK·1 (7) 14. n/2 radians from N (4) 17. The next nearest one is about 4 light years (4) 18. A non-SI Unit of length (4) 20. Unsatisfactory (4) 26. The outside of a chest (6) 27. Incorrect (5) 28. A non-SI Unit of length (1.609344 km) (4) 30. 101325/760 Pa (4) 31. Liable to be high when the barometer reads a low value of 3 0 (4) �24. T~rowilg l ht on the Past of Cer ia by: Dr. S.J. Fleming Research Laboratory for Archaeology, Oxford The phenomenon of thermoluminscence (TL) is exhibited to a varying degree by many minerals. It is an emission of light when the mineral is heated: th is Iight is additional to· the usual incandescence that occurs at elevated temperatures around 400° C. It represents the release of energy stored as trapped electrons in the crystal lattice of the mineral. The energy is accumulated by absorption from nuclear radiation to which the mineral hlay have been exposed. Consequently the amount of TL observed (as measured using an extremely sensitive photo-mufti pf ier) is directly related to the overall radiation dose which has·been received. In terracotta and most types of pottery there are crystalline .constituents (like· quartzes and feldspars). that have this capacity for accumulating TL energy particularly well. Though they receive only a small dosage of nuclear radiation each year over the long periods of archaeological burialthe total dose experienced is quite appreciable. The dosage comes from radioactive impurities (around 1-10 parts per million ppm - of uranium and thorium and a few per cent of potassium) in the clay fabric itself and in the surrounding burial media; cosmic radiation also makes a smaff contribution. The concentrations of the radioactive impurities can be measured using standard laboratory techniques. Time-zero for pottery In a geological condition the relevant minerals will have accrued huge levels of TL energy but this will have been driven off during the process of kiln-firing when ancient man included some sand in his clay stock to help the pottery fabric withstand the rigours of extreme heating. Immediately after its manufacture the pottery's stored TL is nil. A time-zero has been set that is directly related to the age of a■cl Bro■zes the pottery. In present times the natural TL carried by the sample can be expressed as an accumulated dose. This is determined by exposing the sample to radiation from an artificial radio-isotope of known strength, hence calibrating each individual fabric with respect to its susceptibility to TL energy storage. We may then use the equation: Age = Accumulated dose Annual dose-rate to obtain a date of· manufacture for the pottery. It is worth stressing the importance of the mechanism of time--zero setting peculiar to pottery-making. Other media of interest to archaeologists and art connoisseurs, like marble and sandstone used in sculpture, jades and. precious stones used for decoration, obsidian used for tool-making, are geological in origin. TL anijlysis of these would duly yield a geological age, not a date for when the material was worked in antiquity. Archaeological dating A major limitation in accurate TL age determination is the dependence of the annual dose-rate on external environmental factors. Even in homogeneous burial contexts there are a number of difficulties associated with evaluation of the gamma radiation dose-rate from radioactivity analysis of an extracted soil sample. The most obvious is that groundwater (low in self-radioactivity) directly dilutes the dosage from the burial medium by acting as an energy absorber itself. This correction for the presence of water is also applicable to the internal dose components of the pottery (short-range alpha and beta radiation) but. saturation uptake rarely exceeds 20 per cent while uptake in soil media reaches levels of 70 per cent of the dry material weight. Further, the decay chain of uranium includes an isotope of particular importance, radon (Rn 222 ), which is gaseous and thus capable of high mobility about the soil and �25. of free movement to the outer atmosphere. Close to 98 per cent of the total gamma-ray energy associated with the uranium chain lies beyond this gaseous decay product. The radioactive half-life of radon, of 3.84 days, allows a degree of diffusion - dependent upon the soil's porosity -- comparable in distance with the influential range of gamma-radiation of about 30 cm that affects the pottery sherd's dosage. The presence of soil moisture reduces this diffusion by an order of magnitude, but now a transportation mechanism during groundwater flow allows radon displacement of up to 2 m. Inevitably these factors result in the environmental dose-rate being subject to seasonal fluctuations. As a short-term solution at present a measure of the integrated annual gamma dosage is obtained by placing a small capsule of annealed fluorite in as similar a burial position as possible to that from which the sherd was removed. This dosimetry phosphor has a susceptibility to radiation many orders of magnitude greater than pottery minerals and so an accurate measurement of the environmental dosage is easily obtained at the end of the year's burial. The level to which such a short-term measurement correctly reflects the levels experienced in the long-term archaeological burial is questionable and comparison of two sherds from an original test programme of the TL method may well show this (See table below). The distinguishing feature between the two sherds is the different dependence on the environmental dose-rate (the 0.080 rad yr-1 being the value obtained at the site during 1968-69 using the monitor capsule approach). For the sherd d2 which has a high internal dose-component the surroundings contribute less than 21 per cent of the total dose-rate, but for sherd d4 that dependence reaches a level of 57 per cent. Thus it is reasonable that while d2 yields a TL age within 2 per cent of the known age for the Roman Fort, d4 is about 11 per cent in error. Yet with a change of only 0.016 rad yr- 1 in the environmental dose-rate both sherds lie within 2 per cent of the known age - such a variation is certainly a reasonable level to be expected in longterm fluctuations. Accuracy of the TL dating method has been shown to be close to ±7 per cent per sherd, on average (expressed as one standard deviation, statistically). In application thermoluminescence has been used on pottery from the Nok culture of Nigeria, from the Early Bronze Age phase of Crete (at the site of Myrtos), from the Jomon Culture of Japan (placing the early occupation of the important site of Fukuie Cave as far back as the eleventh millennium BC). Aboriginal hearth material from Mungo Lake, Australia, has been provisionally dated to arpund 35,000 years old. The neolithic levels of the Cretan site of Knossos are now under investigation through study of the six-metredeep strata below the renowned Minoan Palace site. Authenticity studies on ceramics From the outline of the principles of the TL method given above the distinction between an authentic art ceramic and one of modern origin (be it imitation or forgerv) is now apparent. The modern ware wi II -yield only a small fraction of the TL observed from its genuine counterpart. There are special restrictions upon the accuracy the TL method can achieve in dating art ceramics, however. To prevent physical damage to the piece the sampling process involves drilling a hole only about 2-3 mm diameter in the piece. The small quantity of material collected allows only approximate assessment of the radioactivity content of the clay. Also, the cleaning of the ceramic prior to sale or display removes the adhering soil that could have given some indication of the piece's burial environment so the latter quantity, in terms of radioactivity, is an unknown in our age calculations. Accuracy of dating of authentic wares is then usually around ±15 per cent, at best. With modern wares the lack of •sufficient time to build up a significant TL signal means that it is rarely distinguishable against the background incandescence also measured for each sample. Then only a limit can be set on the piece's age. �26. The examples discussed below have been chosen to illustrate one central theme: that, irrespective of how accomplished and experienced an art historian may become in recognising style visually, certain features of the forger's skill must necessarily cause severe headaches. (i) Terracotas of the Renaissance period offer an interesting problem for a couple of distinct reasons. Workshop techniques of manufacture typified by the works of the della Robbia family such as the Pieta allow anomalies in style to be attributed to either imitative attempts in recent times or the hand of an apprentice whose efforts slightly distort the characteristic family style. Also there was a phase of definite encouragement of high quality imitation from 1850 onwards. Indeed, the Doccia factory was awarded gold medals in 1851 and 1855 for its ability to simulate della Robbia tinglazing techniques, a treatment of the terracottas originally intended to harden them sufficiently to face outdoor exposure, so offering a cheap alternative to use of the more fashionable marble. The passing of over a century and the blurring of documentation of the sources of imitations of this type may well have allowed many pieces to receive false attribution in present times. (ii) Ceramics of the T'ang Dynasty in China (Ad 618-906) first attained popularity in the western world during the second decade of this century. A large proportion of these wares were unearthed quite by chance as railway construction carved through the ancient tombs in the Chinese countryside. However, at the same time several kiln sites were found that gave much insight into the technology of the T'ang artisans, particularly aspects of the use of piece-moulding methods. Several original casting moulds were taken up and some were re-used to produce impeccable forgeries. The idea would cover a very wide spectrum of unglazed T'ang Dynasty wares such as groups of musicians, zodiac figures of mythical significance, groups of warriors and other animal types, like camels and oxen. Porcelain problematical A recent development in the TL method has been its application to Chinese stonewares and porcelains. Here only partial success has been achieved as the cl~y used for these wares was usually much purer than the more common earthenware ceramics: only limited amounts of crystalline impurities were added before firing. Occasionally even authentic wares give no natural TL, nor do they respond to laboratory radiation. The TL method is then simply not usable. One important example is worthy of note however - a phosphate-splashed bottle. This high-fired grey stoneware piece received much acclaim at the Oriental Ceramic Society Exhibition of T'ang Dynasty Art in 1955, but has recently been questioned by experts in America. The TL authentication of the bottle has offered a rapid solution to this academic controversy. Dating of Bronzes Specific reference was made to minerals that possessed the property of TL energy storage. Indeed this property is limited to such substances - metals (bronze, si Iver and gold) and other materials of archaeological importance, like wood, do not have the same capacity and so TL analysis cannot be applied to them, in a direct sense. However, many ancient civilizations employed a technique of bronze manufacture that involved casting the metal about a sand or clay core. Then TL analysis becomes feasible, not on the metal itself but upon this supporting, fired ceramic-like material inside. In China th is technique of construction began in the Late Shang period (circa 1100 BC) and is particularly common in the Chou period (1027-222 BC) that followed. It is of interest to note that the documented era of imitation of early Chinese bronzes is the Sung Dynasty (AD 960-1279) when academic interest in that material flourished. The intervening 900 years or so, coming forward to the present day, is quite long enough to allow development of good patination indistinguishable from that on much earlier pieces. �27. Dating is practical on bronzes from Africa (particularly of the Benin period) and has already found useful application in material from Java, Cambodia, Nepal, India and Thailand, where, unfortunately, there are growing signs of a flourishing industry in production of imitation wares. In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the fact that TL dating is an absolute method, not dependent upon reference standards and requiring no data on technology of the past to solve authenticity problems. As such it may be fairly claimed as one of the most powerful tools in archaeological and art historical research now available. Further reading See Archaeometry, volumes 11 onwards (bulletin of the Oxford Research Laboratory for Archaeology and History of Art). Two monographs by the author are due to be published in 1973 by Merrow Press, England. Table: TL dating of sherds from Baginton, England (Roman Fort, AD 70). Sherd reference Water uptake {% of dry weight) d2 d4 12.5 10.2 Dose-rate internal (rad yr-1 ) 0.306 0.060 Dose-rate environmental (rad yr-1 ) Accum. dose (rad*) TL age (years} 0.080 0.080 750 287 1940 2110 * The doses are expressed in rad, equivalent to an absorbed energy of 100 ergs/g. This article is reprinted from Spectrum, No. 108, 1973. EDITOR'S NOTE Caret is directed at the high-school teachers and students, and we would Ii ke to keep it so with your help. One of my many headaches as editor is to know what do and would appeal most to my readers. I have been fortunate, in this new office, to have many useful criticisms and suggestions from the Editorial Board, and we at LU. are beginning to introduce some changes, e.g. shorter articles, more frequent issues, Editor's Mix with word games, definitions, etc. I cannot help feeling that much more can be done yet. In the Science Faculty, particularly near Science Fair time, we often have requests from students for help with their projects. In Caret we would like to feature a Question Box in the hope that the answers would prove useful to a wider spectrum of readers, particularly those from out of town. So why don't you - and that means YOU TOO - write to us, send in your queries, WRITE!? It is of course always gratifying to receive letters like that from Mr. Dunnell, but that of Miss McBride is equally welcome. As in the past issues of Caret we are again appealing to you to let us know how you feel about Caret. Feelings, likes and dislikes do change. So, even if you have written before, do write again soon! Another headache that many editors have is to find persons willing to write articles. In this respect I have been fortunate to inherit a number of articles from the previous editor, Dr. J. Hart. I thank him for them, the crossword puzzles and for his help. But I am counting on YOU for future articles, and I thank you in advance for them. I also thank the contributors ir, this issue of Caret, all those who have helped to produce it, those who attended the Editorial Board meeting, and Mr. S.T. Spivak for his work on the crosswords. True or False? ammeter: a device for measuring the elevation of the sun through 90 degrees, from sunrise to noon. cataract: a waterfall genome: fictitious character commonly found under mushrooms If you do not agree with those definitions, send in YOUR version. �LA EE I SITY FACULTY OF SCIENCE THE BORA LASKIN SCH LARSHIPS Five scholarships of $1,000.00 will be awarded in 1975-76 to students entering the Energy and Fuel Science programme. The scholarships are renewable for a maximum of three years depending on academic progress. Early application is advised and further details of the competition can be obtained from: The Office of Bursaries and Scholarships, c/o Dean of Students, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario. P7B SEl �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. UCARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P78 5E1 �PLEASE LEA VE ME ABOUT FOR OTHERS TO READ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 4 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 4, January 1975. Articles on a variety of topics: Extraterrestrial life and the statistical probability of life Teaching science to children Future energy fuels, petroleum, oil and gas to new sources like uranium and solar energy International Congress of Mathematicians Open University Maths Archaeological dating in ceramics and bronze Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-01 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/a3201cf561f5a198d4774141177ab299.pdf d6e502fcffa7cfc31e7f48f6f3b426b2 PDF Text Text LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY ' SCIENCE REVIE VOLUME 1 NUMBER 5 .6 �t L KEE NI E SIT S IE ERE IE incorporating LAKEHEAD UNNERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CARET IS PUBLISHED BY THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO, CANADA. P7B 5E1 EDITOR Dr. G. Harvais Lakehead University ASSOCIATE EDITOR Mr. B. Spenceley Lakehead University EDITORIAL BOARD Mr. W. Bilbrough, Lakeview High School, Thunder Bay. Mr. G. Campbell, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. C. Gehrels, Ontario Ministry of Education. Mr. W. Lajoie, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. J. Palko, Fort William Collegiate Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. T. Reynolds, Queen Elizabeth High School, Sioux Lookout. CONTENTS VOLUME 1, NUMBER 5, May 1975 4 Who Says People Don't Get Involved? by Lynn Hamilton and Audrey Saxberg 6 9 Student Services About Pressing Plants by Professor C. Garton A Chemist in Thailand 11 by Dr. A. N. Hughes 16 Asbestos Contamination & Dr. R.A. Ross Affective Contrast: behavioral contrast of liking 19 by Dr. S. R. Goldstein Metrication? Surely, you don't mean it! 21 by Professor John Hart How Many Villagers? : an exercise... 23 by Mr. Robert S. Dilley Quality or Quantity: the modern dilemma 25 by Dr. Paul Barclay-Estrup Will I Need a Calculator in University? 29 by Professor C. Kent/ Betting Games that are a Sure Bet 31 by Dr. L.K. Roy An Analysis of the Game of Keno 33 by Dr. L. K. Roy Is the Mind a Material Object? or ....... Typesetter: Seppo Kasma Printing: LU. Printshop Design: LU. Media Services 34 by Dr. J. Douglas Rabb Colouring-In Maps 36 by Dr. Brian A.M. Phillips THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN CARET DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE OPINIONS OF THE EDITOR, THE FACULTY OR THE UNIVERSITY. OUR COVER arises from the article, "A Chemist in Thailand". Originally a Buddhist temple wall relief, it depicts the Thai calendar. The outer rim shows the twelve year cycle in which each year of the cycle is represented by an animal. �L I y I L I IC MASTER'S PR R El Bl L y It is anticipated that the M.Sc. (Biology) will commence in July of this year. This is contingent upon the arrival of Dr. Walter T. Momot, an aquatics biologist who is expected to join the staff of the department. The Ontario Council of Graduate Studies have approved the programme but have specified that only 8 students can be admitted initially. The areas of specialization are also to be somewhat restricted in the early stages with the provision of expansion in the future. Inquiries should be directed to the Chairman, Department of Biology, Lakehead University. E RAP Y The Department of Geography has revised its B.Sc. and Honours B.Sc. programs and has made a series of changes in its course offerings, aimed at providing greater choice for third and fourth year students. A copy of the new programs, with course descriptions, is posted on the Department notice board, and can also be obtained from the Department chairman. Science students should also note that there is now an Honours B.Sc. program in Geography with Geology minor: this replaces the old B.A. Geography-Geology program. EL GY "If you wish to become a geologist you should know that you may combine geological studies with four other disciplines: with Chemistry - the most popular and generally most useful combination with Physics - as the basis for a career as a geophysicist with Biology - for careers in the vitally important field of environmental studies with Economics - for careers in the management of non-renewable resources." �3. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR April 9, 1975. In Volume 1 no. 3 (p.37) and Volume 1 no. 4 (p.2) of your journal the name of the late Dr. L.S.B. Leakey is misspelled (as Leaky). As a fellow-member of Dr. Leakey's college (St. John's, Cambridge) I owe it to him to set this right. I would also like to note that his best-known discovery, Zinjanthropus boisei, is usually so spelled (not Zinganthropus). However, Z. boisei was not, as far as I know, also a member of my college. Such an old fossil was probably an Oxford man. Yours sincerely, Robert S. Dilley Lakehead University Thunder Bay * * * * * * * * * * * am delighted that Caret is read, and even scrutinized. Thank you for pointing out our errors to us. On the basis of this information, should the specific name be leakei or leakeyi, or ... ? (May I add that scientific names of organisms are always in a different type from that of the rest of the text, most commonly italics). - Editor March 12, 1975 I was horrified by the mistatements in the recent article by Dr. Richard Reis. i) He claims the most conservative estimate of the fraction of stars with planetary systems rv 1, and that a similar conservative estimate for the fraction of such planets on which life does develop ,..., 1. Most authorities would regard these 'conservative' figures most liberal! ii) There is still controversy surrounding the existence of planets around Banard's star - and I would hesitate to use this example to give "strong support to the statistical estimation that there may be at least fifty million planets in our galaxy." iii) He states "it is just as likely that we would be in a position to teach them much more than they can teach us about science & technology Bolderdash. The human race has been industrialized for about 2000 years - and has around 4 x 109 years before the sun novas. The probabi Iity of another civilization capable of communicating with the electromagnetic spectrum (which we have been using for about 50 years) learning from us is incredibly small. In short this article is erroneous and dul I. Surely the editors of Caret are capable of instituting a system of referees so that similar misleading articles are caught before they appear in print. Dr. J.S. Griffith Lakehead University Thunder Bay * * * * * * * * * * * am disappointed that Dr. Griffith did not "like Dr. Reis' article, but I hope that this difference of opinions will produce some enlightening comments. I would certainly like to hear from Dr. Reis again, but, alas, my attempts to get in touch with him have so far failed. I very much hope that, in the meantime, other readers will send in their comments. Caret is definitely NOT intended to be a referred scientific journal. I like to read in Dr. Griffith's letter, an offer to review articles for us. I would be delighted to call upon him in future. Meanwhile, I think this sort of controversy adds some spice to life. I like it. - Editor True or False? cataract: a cataract is a waterfall, a cascade. It is better known as an eye condition where the lens or the cornea becomes opaque. It is also a downpour of rain, a rush of water, a steam-engine governor acting by flow of water. How about carotid: yellowish or orange pigment associated with chlorophyl Is in all green plants. carob: the measure of weight for precious jewels and metals. goatsucker: a dairy woodpecker. �HO SAYS PEOPLE DON'T GET INVOLVED? 4. by: Lynn Hamilton and Audrey Saxberg Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. On the face of it the assignment seemed quite simple. Our public-spirited Physics professor, Dr. Hart, asked each class member to check the accuracy of two parking meters in town. As working mothers, who are part-time students, time is limited, and Wednesday evening at seven o'clock seemed best. We decided that at this time no one would be around to interfere with our work, and we could carry on unnoticed. Having made our decision as to time and date, we began settling things at home, discussing the assignment with our husbands in a matter-of-fact fashion. It was their reactins that gave us our first inkling that we were doing something extraordinary. "Are you kidding?" "You're not really going downtown to do that!" "You CAN'T put money in a parking meter after six o'clock!" "You really are going, aren't you?" Yes, we were. We met on Arthur Street and picked out a likely parking meter, found our change and got out the stopwatch and notebook. These unobtrusive perparations created a reaction. A man, 'sauced to the eyeballs' suddenly appeared from nowhere shouting "Hey lady, are you from out of town? You don't have to put money in the meters after six o'clock." "We re working on an assignment," we said, trying to sound nonchalant. "For the city?" he asked in a booming voice. "No, for our Physics class." "I 'II bet you 're really doing a secret report for the city," he shouted. (A crowd was gathering). "No, we're not," we said, and put the nickel in the meter, but before we had a moment to check the stopwatch, he had turned the dial and ruined our first timing. The crowd was getting larger. "These here ladies are doing a secret report for the city," our man said ceremoniously. 1 "If you magnetize the nickel before you put it in, it will gum up the works," one man told us helpfully. "I've heard if you cover a penny with aluminum foil, you can use it as a nickel," someone else said. "What kind of secret report are you doing?" someone else asked. "None," we said. Disgusted and embarrassed, and writing off the loss of the nickel to experience, we slunk away leaving them to their discussions as to just who we were and how to 'put one over' on the City Parking Authority. Finding another parking meter, this one with two meters attached, we decided to use it for our next two efforts. A car was parked by it, but we didn't feel that this was something to worry about. Out came the notebooks, in went the nickel. One of us held the lever while the other checked the stopwatch. We were intent on getting everything right this time. "Three, two, one - now!" and the lever was released triumphantly. The exact time was recorded - and we looked up into the startled faces of the car's owners. This respectable middle-aged couple apparently made an initial decision that it would be prudent to ignore us, but this proved to be too much for the lady. With one foot in her car, and the other still on the sidewalk, she paused, mouth opening and closing with no sound being emitted, eyes wide with questions. She stood like that for several seconds before her husband, anxious to get away from us, started to drive off, with the lady still half in and half out of the car. By this time we were beginning to feel slightly conspicuous. We were cold too, and decided to wait out most of the twenty minutes we had bought in a nearby restaurant. After sixteen minutes had passed we gulped down the rest of our coffee and darted out across the street to the meter. Good! We had caught it in time. The minutes ticked by and we stood poised with the stopwarch, waiting. The time was clocked. Half of the assignment was now �5. done. We looked up this time to find five men waving wildly in the restaurant window across the street. One came running over without his coat in sub-zero weather to tel I us that we didn't need to put money in the meters after six o'clock. "We know," we said. "Thank you," and left him there on the sidewalk staring at us and shivering. "Crazy women," he muttered. Up the street we went, and found another meter with two heads which would suffice for the last two timings. Out came the notebooks, in went the nickel. Zooming out the blackness came three boys on bicycles. "You don't have to put money in the meters after six o'clock," one said. Trying a different approach we answered, "Oh, really?" "I don't even drive and I'm not stupid enough to put money in a meter after six o'clock. What's wrong with you anyway?" (Not only had we met with opposition this time, but we had met it in angelic-looking, but nasty little boys). Using her 'mother-voice' my friend said, "Why aren't you boys at home? It's after nine o'clock." Using his 'brat-voice' one of the angels said, "Why aren't you in a rubber room, stupid ladies?", and with that they zoomed off leaving us quite mortified. All-in-all the whole experience was becoming quite trying. We sat on the curb, this time quite oblivious to passers-by who probably thought we had just come out of the hotel and were sobering up on the sidewalk. We took our last timing as the meter clicked off. Two couples passed by, and each said, "You don't have to put money in the meters after six o'clock." "We know," we said, "thank you." With our times recorded, our teeth chattering, our price at a new low we left downtown Port Arthur never to return again after six o'clock. Next time you think people on the street refuse to get involved in other people's problems, don't bet your parking meter money on it. EDITOR'S NOTE Over many centuries much has been written about spring and its effects on the lives of individuals and on society in general. We, in this part of Canada, are wel I aware of these effects, and I need not say much more on the subject. It is also that time of the year when old interests are renewed, new ones are born, and future activities are looked into more firmly. In the past, this has also been the time when we have had many inquiries from highschool students contemplating a university education. Particularly for the benefit of those students, we are printing some information on some of the facilities available at Lakehead University. (We would like to hear if it is helpful or not.) This is also the time when many teachers, students and nature lovers in general will find themselves spending more time in our "great outdoors". There is much biological activity in our North Western Ontario, but, alas, we are short of people to collect and analyse the data. So, when YOU are out there on a picnic, a fishing or other similar trip, why not 'mix business with pleasure', and contribute to our better understanding of our area? Study your flora. Collect some plants. Start a herbarium (at home or in your school). To help you, amateur or 'professional', Professor Claude Garton has kindly prepared some handy hints. (Professor Garton has contributed and is still contributing actively to our knowledge of our local flora, and he needs no introduction to plant taxonomists in this country). Now YOU TOO can benefit from his vast experience! Furthermore, he is always ready to help, and he may even lend you a plant press until you get your own! Why not make this a school project and start now? If pressing plants does not turn you on, you can still contribute through drawings, paintings, photographs, etc., and in many other ways. �6. The Canada Department of Manpower & Immigration maintains a Student Placement Office on the campus of Lakehead University. The aim of the Student Placement Office is to provide assistance to students who are seeking either part-time, summer or permanent employment. The assistance takes the form of a wide variety of services to students of all years and disciplines. An opportunity is offered to participate in the on-campus recruitment program whereby employers from the private and public sectors from all across Canada visit the University to recruit recent University graduates. The Office also has up-to-date career literature, brochures, employment statistics, and information about re-employment trends, salaries and Manpower programs such as student Mobility, Mobility Grants and Relocation Grants. Another form of assistance is direct referral to part-time and summer jobs. In order to take the fullest advantages of the services offered, students seeking employment should register with the Student Placement Office as early in the year as possible. Should you want to find out more about Manpower programs and services call 345-2121 extension 254 or visit the Student Placement Office located on the second floor of the University Centre Building. The Student Placement Office also serves High School students who are seeking summer part-time employment. The University provides new students with many opportunities for intellectual and personal growth. Personal problems often interfere with student' academic and social development. It is the concern of the Dean of Students and his staff to maintain in all students such a sense of well-being that they are able to take advantage of all the oppotunities for full development. The Dean of Students and the University physician are especially qualified to help stu- I dents resolve their personal difficulties. The Dean of Students is also available to help students resolve problems connected with their choice of a course of study or a vocation. The Dean of Students Office is also responsible for various forms of financial assistance to students. In addition to providing information and application forms for the Government programs, the office administers a number of scholarships, bursaries and awards. A summary of financial assistance available to entering students and continuing students in the faculty of science follows. Interested students requiring more information should contact the Dean of Students Office. ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS C.J. SANDERS SCHOLARSHIP - $1500. This scholarship was established from the proceeds of a generous grant made by Mr. Sanders to Lakehead University. To be awarded to an outstanding student enrolling in a course leading to a university degree at Lakehead University under the following conditions: (a) $500 payable at registration, provided a first class average in the grade 13 papers required for admission is obtained, and financial need is known; (b) $500 payable in the second and third years respectively, provided that at least second class average has been obtained in the previous year of the student's course at Lakehead University. THE BORA LASKIN SCHOLARSHIP Five scholarships of $1000 each will be awarded on the basis of academic standing to students entering the Energy and Fuel Science programme. The scholarships are renewable for a maximum of three years depending on academic progress. �7. KATHLEEN BOOTH SCHOLARSHIP Value totals $2000. This scholarship is open to al I Mathematics Majors and wi 11 be awarded at the discretion of the Department of Mathematical Sciences. C.A.P. ONTARIO UNIVERSITIES' PHYSICS TEST SCHOLARSHIP - Full tuition costs. To be awarded on the recommendation of the Physics Department to a student from Northwestern Ontario who achieves high marks in the C.A.P. Ontario Universities' Physics Test. LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIP - $300. All students entering Lakehead University with a standing of 80% or over are eligible for a Lakehead University Scholarship. No application is necessary for those scholarships awarded by the University since all students with an overal I average of 80% will be considered. NORMAN S. GRACE SCHOLARSHIP $80. To be awarded on the recommendation of the Department of Chemistry to a first year student of high academic standing who registers as a Chemistry Major. AUXILIARY TO ST. JOSEPH'S GENERAL HOSPITAL SCHOLARSHIP $150. To be awarded to a student preferably from Northwestern Ontario, who is entering the Bachelor of Science Nursing Degree Programme. The scholarship will be awarded on the basis of need and academic excellence. ENTRANCE BURSARIES AND AWARDS MARION E. TOMLINSON MEMORIAL BURSARY - $1000. To be awarded to a deserving student entering the degree or diploma programme at Lakehead University. $400 at registration, $300 at the beginning of the second year, $300 at the beginning of the third year, provided second class average is maintained. JOSEPH MARIEN MEMORIAL BURSAR I ES $500. Two bursaries of $500 each will be awarded to provide assistance to worthy and needy students seeking higher education in a degree programme. IBM THOMAS J. WATSON MEMORIAL BURSARIES - up to $200. To provide financial assistance to one or more needy students in good standing entering any faculty at Lakehead University. In addition, the donor provides an annual grantin-aid of $500 to the University. GREAT LAKES PAPER COMPANY FORESTRY BURSARY - $150. To be awarded to a deserving student entering the Forestry Diploma Programme at Lakehead University with the intention of proceeding to the degree programme. LOGOZZO AWARD - $150. To be awarded to a student entering the first year of a degree or diploma programme. The student should have a good scholastic record and excel at some athletic sport. Application forms for Entrance Scholarships and Bursaries are available from the Dean of Students Office. ONTARIO STUDENT ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME CANADA STUDENT LOAN PLAN These programmes are administered by the Ministry of Colleges and Universities of the Province of Ontario. They offer Canada student loans and provincial grants to provide awards for university and other postsecondary students. To be eligible to apply through the Ontario programme a student must be a Canadian citizen or a landed immigrant with at least twelve months residency in Ontario. An award is made after the student's loan and possibly a provincial grant is apportioned according to a formula established by the government. �8. Application forms and further details about these programmes may be obtained by contacting the Dean of Students Office. It is strongly recommended that interested students apply early to these programmes. Entrance students may apply for assistance before they receive their letters of acceptance from the university. INCOURSE SCHOLARSHIPS ANO BURSARIES A number of scholarships and bursaries are offered exclusively to 2nd to 4th year Science students. The following is a brief summary of those available. J.P. BICKELL FOUNDATION SCHOLARSH IP - $1500. (to be paid at a rate of $500 a year for three years provided the student maintains first class standing in the course). To be awarded to a student who obtains 80% in a science or applied science course at the end of the first year, who plans to take a degree in mining, metallurgy, geology or chemical engineering. ALLIED CHEMICAL CANADA, LIMITED, SCHOLARSHIP IN THE CHEMICAL SCIENCES - $750 and silver tray. The Allied Chemical Company of Canada, Limited offers a scholarship of $750 and a silver tray to be awarded to a student, not otherwise holding a scholarship, entering the final year of undergraduate studies in a chemistry programme. The award will be based on high academic achievement in previous undergraduate years and leadership qualities as demonstrated by participation in extra-curricular activities. PETER MCKELLAR SPENCE MEMORIAL SCHOLARSHIP - $200. To be awarded to a student who is continuing his education at Lakehead University. Those going on in Science, particularly Medicine or Nursing will be given preference. CHEMICAL INSTITUTE OF CANADA, LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIP - $50. To be awarded to an outstanding student entering the third year chemistry at Lakehead University. The grade of the student receiving this scholarship must not be less than 80%. THUNDER BAY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION BURSARY - $500. To be awarded annually to a student or students who plan to continue their education in medicine, nursing or pure science. J.P. BICKELL FOUNDATION BURSARI ES - Total award $750. To be awarded on the basis of financial need to students registered in geology, mining, metallurgy or chemical engineering. ABITIBI PAPER COMPANY LIMITED BURSARY - $250. To be awarded on the basis of financial need, to a student showing general proficiency in his study of science or forestry who has demonstrated his intention to pursue further his studies in science or forestry at Lakehead University. PRINCESS BEATRICE CHAPTER 1.O.D.E. BURSARY - $100. To assist a student in science at the end of first or second year. Awarded annually on the basis of scholastic standing and financial need with preference being given to a son or daughter of a war veteran. INTERPROVINCIAL PIPE LINE COMPANY BURSARIES Total value $2500. Up to ten $250 bursaries wi 11 be awarded to deserving students, depending on need, who are continuing their education at Lakehead University; minimum of 50% of the bursaries wi 11 be awarded to students in the applied sciences. Awarded to Canadian and United States residents. Application forms are available from the Dean of Students Office and must be submitted by August 8th, 1975. �E SI A OUT by: Professor C. Garton, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. • WHY PRESS PLANTS? If living material is available this at first does not seem necessary. But our weather here is seasonal, and even in the tropics plants are subject to flushes of growth and fruiting. Through drying and pressing you can have plants at various stages of their development, all available at the same time for study. Besides, in the field you cannot easily examine a plant or its parts under a microscope. It may not even be possible to get it back to a laboratory to do so while it is fresh. So, press it and examine it at your leisure or convenience. A further advantage of dried specimens is that you can compare plants at different stages of their development or the same species from different localities. Individual and geographic differences are as much a feature of plants as of animals. Another important point, particularly in the naming and description of species: you can examine the same plant even after many years, for well-prepared and wel Ipreserved herbarium specimens will last for centuries. HOW DO I GO ABOUT PRESSING PLANTS? Exact instructions can be secured from the herbarium or from books. There are several more general points to be noted. 1. Get good representative material, neither too fat, too thin, too short, too tall. When plants are averaging one metre tall, it is foolish to select a 10 cm. dwarf simply because it will go into your press. 2. When plants are smaller than your press get several as different as possible to show variation. 3. Whatever the pressed plant does not show must be given in notes. If it is a tree, how tall is it, what kind of branching it demonstrates, what its bark is like (a sample if possible). Many trees bear fruits which, like those of many other 9. plants, are large and inconvenient for a press - save these separately. With most larger plants only fragments can be taken; so notes must be made about the whole plants. 4. Pressing does not usually retain the exact colour of a living plant. Notes again must record this. 5. All plant parts are three dimensional. The pressed plant has only two dimensions. A careful collector will provide for depth by such devices as splitting and flattening, for example, the corollas of tubular flowers, the leaves of the pitcher plant. A few extra flower heads pressed with the specimen can be included on the sheet in small easily opened envelopes. This is particularly necessary with grasses, sedges and al I plants where seed attachment such as in the Crucifers is critical in determining the species. 6. Unless a pressed plant is well supported with critical data it is worthless for future study. Date of collection, collector, place (and this must be exact enough so that a reader can locate the si~e), association (other plants growing with this particular one) amount of light, soil, moisture, habit of growth are some of the necessary items. It is wise to have in the field a pad with duplicate sheets so that notes can be made on the spot. The original is put with the specimen at the time. The duplicate provides a ready reference. 7. As to the actual mechanics of pressing and mounting the specimen you will get instructions and then develop your own techniques. That will give you specimens that wi 11 be a joy to behold and a pleasure to study. HINTS TO COLLECTORS 1. Latitude and longitude exact to the minute. 2. Distance from nearest post office. 3. Other data as exact as possible: township, concession and lot number, river, lake, stream etc. �10. 4. All data not shown by specimen: (a) Shrub or tree: height, type of growth, bark characteristics. (b) Herbs: type of growth - prostrate, 13. Gather mature seeds if available. These can be put in small envelopes to prevent loss. 14. If the plant is parasitic, as dodder, erect, climbing, submersed (give depth of water), floating. (c) Type of substrata: mud, silts, clay, loams, sand, gravel etc. (d) Plant associations: other dominant plants growing with this species. (e) Colour of foliage and inflorescence, recognizable portions of the host plant are desirable. 15. Plants should be put in the press for a few hours to relax. Then leaves, stems and floral parts can be straightened and rearranged. etc. (f) Name of collector. (g) Date of collection. SPECIMENS: 1. Average specimens as available. Smaller or larger than average specimens should 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. be avoided. Use newspaper folders which are smaller than 12" x 18" (News Chronicle and Times Journal excellent. Toronto, Globe & Mail, Star etc. are too large). Bend and criscross specimens to fit sheet. Make sure there are no protruding parts. Arrange specimens so that leaves show both dorsal and ventral surfaces. Arrange floral parts to show all floral structures. It may be necessary to split tubular corollas etc. Extra floral parts should be gathered where available. For grasses, sedges, rushes, etc. extra heads should be gathered. If available, be sure to collect enough specimens to completely fill 2 full sheets. If a plant is rare, as with orchids, one specimen as a record is sufficient in the interests of conservation. 10. Be sure to collect al I parts of the plant, including underground portions. 11. Roots etc. should be washed and dried off before pressing. 12. Flaccid plants, particularly water plants need to be floated in water over a screen and I ifted out on the screen to prevent matting. If these are allowed to dry for a few minutes the plants can then be transferred to the newspaper folder with ease. SPECIFIC DATA FOR FAMILIES AND GENERA: 1. Crucifers must be gathered with some mature fruit. 2. Sedges, grasses and rushes must have mature seeds but the heads must not be desi ntegrati ng. 3. Violets must have roots and rhizomes for determinations. Also, the late summer flowers or cleistogenes should be gathered. 4. Hawthorns require collection of flowers and, later, mature fruits. 5. Ferns must show the type of indusium 6. Pond weeds must show mature fruiting heads along with underground rhizomes 7. Composites must show type of florets and the involucre. 8. Orchids are usually covered with a heavy waxy epidermis. This prolongs drying time. In addition orchids have juices which are readily oxidised. Discolouring is almost inevitable unless gentle heat is used to hasten drying. 9. Mature fruits as in roses, currants etc. should be gathered and pressed. If possible these should be preserved in a suitable preservative in vials. 10. Cactus plants are extremely resistant to desiccation. These are usually split in half. 11. Mosses, lichens, and liverworts should be separated from substrata and pressed with gentle pressure as with other plants. 12. Most legumes must show both flowers and mature fruits for determination. GENERAL: 1. Moderate pressure is essential. Extreme pressure produces brittle, deformed specimens. (continued page 15) �by: Dr. A.N. Hughes Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. One of the great privileges of academic life (and, in my opinion, one which must be preserved at almost any cost) is sabbatical leave. This allows a professor who is somewhat ragged at the edges to go elsewhere and engage in scholarly activity of his choice for a year free from the daily cares of routine administration, University politics and student lynch mobs thirsting for his blood. If he so desires, he may not only change his location but he may also change to another culture. This is what I chose to do when after investigating various Universities active in my research field ( organophosphorus chemistry) in Australia, Britain and Germany, I decided to spend my year at Mahidol University in Thailand. The reasons for this were numerous. First, I had spent the years 1960-62 in Malaya (now Malaysia), and my wife and I had been very happy in South East Asia despite the Malayan emergency which finished shortly after our arrival. During our time in Malaya, we had visited Thailand as impoverished tourists and we were greatly impressed by the country, especially by the Thai culture and the easy acceptance of foreigners by the Thai people. We later returned to Thailand for a much longer stay ( 1964- 1967) where I worked at the University of Medical Sciences (now Mahidol University) in Bangkok. Our three years there had been very rewarding and academically successful, and we had made many Thai friends. We therefore decided to ask if we might go back for a further year, knowing how good the facilities for chemistry were there. We were accordingly delighted to hear from the Dean of Science, Dr. Kamchorn Manunapichu, that not only were we welcome but that he had arranged for the required Thai government approval of my visit, air-conditioned office space, full library and laboratory faci Iities and a car for my use a treatment which few sabbaticants in the western world would receive! In return, the University asked me to set aside only two or three hours each week to lecture on my special research interests and to advise graduate students from time to time. These arrangements were ideal for sabbatical study and we therefore set off for Bangkok in 1973, via Singapore and Malaysia. The day after our arrival we were able to find an excellent fully air-conditioned apartment in a block consisting of several low buildings grouped around a central court containing miniature Japanese gardens, shaded lawns, clumps of bamboo, fan palms and a swimming pool. These apartments were situated next to a beautifully landscaped small estate owned by a princess and were extremely wel I run by the Thai owner who ran them almost like a friendly club. Ail cleaning and laundry were done for us and we hired our own cook. There was the added bonus of an armed police guard on the gate at night to discourage burglars who are sometimes quite violent when caught in the act. These apartments were about ten minutes walk from the University but about 45 minutes drive. The Bangkok traffic is an unbelievable nightmare with eight-lane highways completely jammed for miles at rush hour (which seemed to be all hours except midnight to 6 a.m.). Before describing our year in Thailand, a brief account of the country is in order. Formerly known as Siam (the name was changed about thirty years ago), Thailand, which means the land of the free, lies south of China and is bounded by the turbulent countries of Burma, Laos and Cambodia and the more tranquil Malaysia. Alone of all South East Asian states, it was never a colony of a European power. This �12. was in large part due to the high degree of skill in dealing with Europeans shown by the rulers of the country, principally King Mongkut (inaccurately portrayed in "The King and / and his son Chulalongkorn, at the time of colonial expansion in this area. The absolute monarchy was overthrown very politely and gently in the Thai manner in 1932 and the country became a constitutional monarchy ruled by a variety of civilian and military governments ever since. Most changes of government have been effected by coups d etat, many of which, by the standards of the rest of the world, have been very gentlemanly affairs having no great effect upon the general population other than a few tense days. However, the revolution which occurred during our visit was somewhat different more of this later. The present monarch is King Bhumibol Adulyadej, otherwise known as Rama IX, and the religion of the country is Hinayana Buddhism. This last probably explains the gentle and tolerant nature of most Thais. The capital is Krung Thep {the City of Angels) which is known in the West as Bangkok. It is a modern city of three million people and is situated on the central rice plain near the mouth of the Chao Phya river. 0 ) 1 The University system in Thailand in some ways resembles a combination of European and North American systems but superimposed upon this is a strong Thai flavour. For example, in Bangkok there are five Universities but only one of these is the very broad based University of the type which one would see in Canada. This is Chulalongkorn University which was founded about seventy years ago and which has the usual faculties in Arts, Science, Engineering etc. which we associate with Western Universities. The other Universities are somewhat different in character. Thus, Thammasat University, The University of Moral and Political Philosophy, is almost exactly what its title implies and has (very sensibly some would say) no faculties or departments of physical, biological, earth or applied sciences. It produces many of the nation's lawyers for example. The three other Bangkok Universities are very like large professional institutions with the emphasis on some aspect of professional activity, such as Mahidol University (the University of Medical Sciences), Kasetsart University (Agriculture) and Silapakorn University (Fine Arts). Three regional Universities lie outside Bangkok. The oldest of these ( 1963) is beautifully situated at Chiangmai in the far north of Thailand with the other two at Haadyai (extreme south) and Khon • Kaen (north east). These are building up to the conventional broad based structure of a Western University. Virtually all instruction in Thai Universities is in Thai although most students have a working knowledge of English. Perhaps it should also be added that the Thai language sounds something like Chinese but in reality it is a mixture of monosyllabic tonal (five tones) words similar to Chinese together with many polysyllabic words derived from Sanskrit. Mahidol University has a number of faculties such as Science (where I was), Medicine (two teaching hospitals), Dentistry, Tropical Medicine, Pharmacy and several others relating to the study of medicine scattered all over the city. The Faculty of Science was founded about fourteen years ago by a very able Thai chemist, Professor Stang Mongkolsuk, who was tragically murdered a few years ago. It consists of a giant complex of seven sixstorey buildings, built over the last seven years, which are extremely modern and, on the whole, very well equipped. The funds for building such a complex came from the Thai government and the Rockefeller Foundation, and technical assistance in the way of small number of academic staff, technical workshops and certain pieces of advanced equipment have been provided by the Rockefeller Foundation, The Columbo Plan (Britain and Australia), M.I.T. and the German government. There is also an English Language Institute and a very good library (particularly for Chemists). The Faculty of Science is also wel I sited in �13. relation to other institutes of advanced study which have a variety of equipment and library facilities and the nearby National Research Council of Thailand has some excellent facilities. The Department of Chemistry is housed in one of the large modern six-storey buildings and is well staffed with very able Thais trained to the doctoral and postdoctoral level in a number of countries such as Canada, Britain, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Germany and Norway. The degree program is four years with the first two years fairly general in nature but with the last two years being an intensive treatment of Chemistry at a level comparable with that in Canada. The emphasis is upon organic chemistry and physical chemistry since there is a shortage of teachers highly trained in inorganic chemistry. The research effort is relatively recent but al ready there are active research programs in physical and organic chemistry with the main research areas in liquid crystal studies, the nature of oscillating reactions, natural product characterizations and synthesis, the development of new organic synthetic methods, mechanistic investigations and now organophosphorus chemistry. The range of equipment available for these studies is impressive. For example, they have a Varian A60-D NM R spectrometer on the premises with access to two other NMR spectrometers in other institutions. In addition, there are the usual infrared and ultraviolet spectrophotometers, analytical and preparative gas chromatographs and facilities for C, H and N microanalysis. A further range of modern equipment is also available in the wellstaffed Department of Biochemistry. There is as yet no mass spectrometer, but moves have been initiated to acquire one in the fairly near future. A small but modern glassblowing shop set up with the aid of the German Government completes the facilities. On top of this, the worldwide contacts of the staff makes most types of instrumental investigation available to the department. I These research programs have been conducted by the academic staff but recently, a substantial number of students have been enrolled in the M.Sc. graduate program which has been running in its present form for three or four years. At the moment, there are about 35 students involved in physical and organic graduate work and, after about eight months of intensive course work, the students become actively engaged in research in cooperation with a staff member or a group of staff members. This year, the doctoral program in Chemistry started and the first students are now enrolled. All of these research efforts are greatly aided by the fact that Bangkok has a major international airport with most of the world's leading airlines calling there. There is therefore a steady flow of distinguished academics and technical experts from other countries through Bangkok and the internal seminar program is reinforced by several guest lectures each year from visitors to Thailand. I should also add that I am not the first sabbatical visitor to the Department of Chemistry. There have been other such visitors from Britain and Australia and when I left, another Canadian chemis~ was enquiring about the possibility of going to Thailand. Also, Dr. Hart of Lakehead University visited the Department of Physics a few years ago. My own work there fol lowed two main lines. The first of these was to write in cooperation with Dr. Holah and Dr. Hui of Lakehead University, several research papers on results accumulated on various research projects in organic, organometallic, and inorganic chemistry over the previous eighteen months or so. Also a major review of the coordination chemistry of phosphorus heterocycles was prepared for publication. The second aspect of my work in Bangkok was to start a research program there in organophosphorus chemistry. In particular, I wished to start an investigation of the synthesis and reactions of a class of compounds cal led the benzophospholes which have the structure shown below. I �14. benzophosphole phosphole These are of particular interest at the moment because they have as yet received virtually no attention and because they are closely related to the phospholes. The phospholes have provided a puzzle regarding their electronic structure which has still not been satisfactorily solved even after about fifteen years of study. In this connection the behaviour of the phosphorus non-bonding electron pair is of interest. I was very fortunate to have two graduate students offer to do their research work under my supervision jointly with two Thai staff members. Th is work proved to be experimentally very difficult but has now begun to yield useful results. Thus, one of the students has been able to expand the five-membered ring in benzophospholes to a six-membered ring by two different methods involving the nonbonding electron pair and this provides valuable information regarding the electro~ic structure of the system. These results can be integrated with the work we are doing at Lakehead University which is to look at the coordinating ability of organophosphorus compounds towards various transition metal systems. It is possible that some of the resulting compounds will have catalytic activity in a variety of reactions and, indeed, we have prepared several such catalysts, two of which show excel lent activity in homogeneous hydrogenation reactions. In addition to my writing and research, I gave a course in organophosphorus chemistry to the graduate students. This was invaluable to me since it made me get up to date in a number of areas which, through pressure of work I had been forced to neglect until then. I was also invited to give the same course on a crash basis (four hours a day for a week) to final-year undergraduate students at the new Prince of Songkhla University at Haadyai near the Malaysian border about 700 miles south of Bangkok. This trip was a very nice change although it had its exciting moments since bandits and insurgents occupy a number of areas in the region which is mostly jungleclad hills. Also, I was told that four people had been shot at the University in the two months preceding my visit. The University has two campuses separated by about 100 miles, and while driving from the main campus at Haadyai to the other one at Pattani, my Thai companion pointed out the sites of various armed bandit attacks and shoot-outs. On the return journey after dark, it was suggested that I should keep a look-out for roadblocks and for lights in the hills. I was told, however, that if we reached safely a particular point on the road, there should be no problem thereafter! Apart from the academic success of the year, there are a number of other things upon which we can look back. Undoubtedly the highlight of the year was the revolution which occurred in mid-October 1973 about 3½ months after we had arrived. This had been simmering for a long time and probably only a Thai could give the real detailed reasons for it. However, it was clear that the people in general were dissatisfied with the authoritarian and apparently corrupt way in which the Prime Minister, (Field Marshall Thanom Kittikachorn) the Deputy Prime Minister, (General Prapas Charasutiara) and the Prime Minister's son (Narong Kittikachorn) were running the country. Accordingly, protests and demonstrations, led mainly by students, bui It up gradually over a period of several weeks and finally came to a head with troops, police and many helicopters firing upon huge crowds of demonstrators near Thammasat University and the old Grand Palace. This resulted in two or three days of heavy fighting, mainly in the city �15. centre, with about a thousand people being killed or wounded. Several government buildings were destroyed by fire and towards the end of the fighting, a large group of Engineering students laid siege to the main police headquarters. This was situated in such a fashion that the students had to cross a large expanse of open road to approach the building and over twenty students were shot down while storming the headquarters. Finally, the building was set on fire with the aid of a water truck containing gasoline. These events resulted in Thanom, Prapas and Narong being ordered out of the country by the Army Commander who refused to fire on the demonstrators any more and, under the guidance of the King (a highly respected figure), an interim government was appointed and charged with formulating a new constitution leading to elections. These have now been held and Thailand is ruled by a representatively elected government. During these events, we retired to our apartment compound .and from the roof watched buildings burning in the distance and listened to the wail of ambulance sirens. We heard only one or two shots in our area. On the first day of fighting, I tried to get to work but the traffic lights were all smashed, the roads were littered with broken glass, debris and smouldering barricades and al I police had fled the streets. It was therefore pointless in view of the choked roads to attempt the drive, and I returned to the apartment. The remainder of the year was extremely pleasant. For example, we were able to visit the northern capital of Chiangmai which is a very old city, formerly the capital of an independent state, situated in a beautiful valley, surrounded by jungleclad hills inhabited by various non-Thai hill tribes. It is as yet relatively uncontaminated by the West but, unfortunately, it is beginning to change its character with luxury tourist hotels being built. We were also able to feast regularly upon a tremendous variety of foods such as Thai, Chinese (several styles), Korean, Indian, and Indonesian, as well as various Western styles. Some items on the menu may not appeal immediately to the Canadian palate. For example, among other things, at country restaurants I have eaten chopped cobra fried with red chili, deep fried tree lizard, fried frogs, chicken claw skin in chili vinegar and pigs duodenum together with less easily identified dishes, most of which were delicious. However, I decided to miss out on the bats blood soup. The year was so rewarding that I could write on and on about up-country trips to make end-of-Buddhist-lent offerings to the monks at a country temple, the beauty and rhythm of Thai classical dancing, the calm of the Thai countryside, the superb National Theatre and Thai art in general (see front cover), and the colourful markets. Indeed, I often feel that the Thais have a lot more to offer us than we have to offer them. However, the year (and this article) finally came to an end and we managed to secure cheap ( ! ) charter flights home via Moscow which seemed to us to be a very gloomy and rather bad-tempered city. It would, however, be wrong of me to close before thanking Drs. Kamchorn Manunapichu, Vichai Reutrakul, Siriporn Phisithkul, Kosan Kusamran and my other Thai colleagues for making my visit so academically and socially successful. ABOUT PRESSING PLANTS (from page 10) 2_ Ventilators and driers should, if possible, be changed every day and sun-dried. If weather does not permit, then spread in a heated room. 3. If extra sets of ventilators and driers are not available, several thicknesses of newspaper between each specimen sheet is helpful. 4. Counter cheque books make a good form of record. The original is put with the specimen and the duplicate forms a chronological diary of specimens. 5. Be sure to number your specimens either using numbers chronologically from year to year or prefexing as: 75-1, 75-2, 75-3 etc; 76-1, 76-2, etc. �16. ASBESTOS CONTA INATION OF LAKE SUPERIOR and Dr. I.A.ROSS The ready availability of sophisticated analytical equipment in the past two decades has caused experimental scientists to become increasingly aware of the pronounced physical & chemical effects that may arise through the presence of impurities and/or imperfections in inorganic or organic materials. Thus, for example, profound changes in the electrical conductivity of germanium or silicon can be effected by introducing into their lattices extremely small amounts of elements from adjacent columns of the periodic table. At liquid helium temperature, -4° K, the resistivity of germanium changes from 10 10 to 5 x 10-3 ohm cm when the impurity concentration of antimony is increased from 5 x 10 14 to 10 18 atoms cc-1 . The contribution of Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley to the theory of such phenomena resulted in their receipt of a Nobel prize and we have all benefited tremendously in the application of these concepts to technology - transistor radios, time-pieces, miniature circuits and so on. There are many further examples of scientific and medical phenomena of major import that can be initiated and sustained through the intervention of impurities within a reaction process or system. In research laboratories dealing with studies of reactions at interfaces results are often painfully distorted through the contamination of surfaces by traces of unknown species that have been unwittingly introduced to the system during a prior preparative stage. In this connection the possible presence of impurities in wash water presents a particular hazard. Lakehead University takes its water from the Port Arthur ward system in Thunder Bay. This water is drawn from Lake Superior and is largely untreated. There are many 'tales' - old wives' and otherwise - regard- ing the quality of this water and, among other suspected contaminants, asbestos may be present. There is sufficient responsible scientific and medical opinion regarding the possible health hazards of this material, that further motivation was added to the Lakehead quest to obtain an analysis of asbestos fibres in our water supply. For comparison, data were also obtained for the asbestos content in water taken from homes in the Fort William ward and in Duluth, Minnesota. The results below were obtained by Allan MacKenzie, using the electron microscope of the Instrumentation Laboratory in the Faculty of Science, towards the end of January, 1975. Fibre count (fibres.litre-1 ) Doubly Distilled Water 0.15 x 106 Tap Water: 0.17 X 106 F.W. ward P.A. ward 0.45 to 14.7 X 106 Duluth 12 X 106 (The high result for the Port Arthur ward has since been shown to lie within the range determined by scientists at McMaster University, 10 to 20 x 106 fibres.litre-1, on samples of Bare Point water the source of the Port Arthur supply.) A substantial amount of public concern regarding the quality of the drinking water supply in Port Arthur ward has been apparent for several years and this concern was increased by the publication of the Lakehead University results. Reports and interviews have been carried in print, sound and vision by all the local Thunder Bay outlets and in Duluth, Minnesota. We reprint below an interview with Dr. R.A. Ross, Dean, Faculty of Science, which first appeared in the "Biology Newsletter" of Lakehead University in March 1975. �17. ASBESTOS: An Interview with Dr. Ross, Dean of Science 0. (BIOLOGY CLUB NEWSLETTER}. What was the asbestos content of the Port Arthur tap water which you sampled? A. (DR. ROSS). We found 14.7 x 106 fibres/litre in the water. 0. How does this value compare with the Government's findings? A. Their values show less than 1 x 106 fibres/litre. 0. Do you know why there is a discrepancy between these figures? A. We are not sure. Their samples were taken last fall, presumably from the lake. We sampled the tap water somewhat later. The handling of the samples might influence the results. For example, asbestos is known to stick to the sides of glass containers, if stored for a period of time. Since the government samples are not tested here, but are sent away for analysis, we may speculate that they are stored for longer periods than our samples. The government uses a different analytical technique; however, this should not produce discrepancies of this order of magnitude. 0. Is a standard technique available? A. No. Different laboratories use different methods. We plan to conduct a series of some fifty tests on water samples to examine the effect of the nature of the container and of the prior treatment of the container on the asbestos content of water over a period of weeks. We have also volunteered to test a sample, obtained by a neutral sampler, that the Government and McMaster University would also test, in order to compare results; but the Government does not have enough funds available at this time. 0. Would the presence of asbestos in the air affect the asbestos content of your samples? A. No. The samples are kept in sealed containers. 0. Is there any way of identifying the source of the asbestos fibres? A. There are various types of asbestos. It occurs in two main forms: a chain type and a sheet type. Electron and x-ray diffraction techniques, in combination with electron microscopy, can distinguish between them. The type of fibre would depend on the source of the fibres. 0. Do you have any idea where the asbestos is coming from? A. At the moment we have no conclusive answer. 0. What is the safe level for asbestos in water? A. It is not known if asbestos is harmful if taken orally. The Government is doing some studies on rats concerning the oral ingestion of asbestos, but until these studies are completed, we can only speculate regarding the danger from the asbestos in the water. 0. Do you know if asbestos would have a synergistic effect in combination with other chemicals, which might be present in water. A. No. An in-depth study of the biological properties of asbestos is needed. We have little idea, in fact, of the surface properties of asbestos. Dr. Murphy, who is working in my laboratory, is studying this aspect of asbestos. Synergism is possible. What we really need is a complete study that would identify every component of the water and examine the possible interactions of the substances present. 0. What do you think should be the next step in research of this nature? A. As I already mentioned, asbestos is not the only substance to be found in tap water. Until a complete study of the water is performed, to include both organic and inorganic substances, we cannot tell what dangers, if any, are present. It is possible that there are substances which should be of much greater concern than asbestos. In terms of asbestos, we need to find the safe level, before we can take any action. Government controls of gaseous emissions are very stringent, but much more work is needed with liquid effluents. �(14,300 X) Dr. R.A. Ross, Dean, Faculty of Science One of the areas of research of Dr. Ross and his team relates to asbestos in our drinking water. Transmission electron micrograph of asbestos fibres in our water samples. (Note tendency for fibres to clump into bundles). Scanning electron micrograph of diatomaceous and other debris found in our water samples. Mr. Al Ian MacKenzie examining water samples at Lakehead University with a transmission electron microscope. �AFFECTIVE CONTRAST: BEHAVIORAL CONTRAST OF LIKING by: Dr. S. R. Goldstein Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. If psychologists were asked to identify the single most important adaptive mechanism adjusting organisms to their environment they would probably point to the ability to form discriminations as their first choice. The reason for this choice is fairly obvious; organisms must behave in different ways in different contexts if they are to survive. It is therefore, not surprising, that during the past 50 years a great deal of laboratory research has been directed at learning about how discriminations are formed. One rather interesting recent finding is that the formation of a discrimination is frequently accompanied by certain behavioral "side effects". In what follows I describe a standard laboratory demonstration of a discrimination and a side effect called behavioral contrast as a means of introducing one aspect of my experimental extension of this area. To demonstrate the formation of a discrimination, a hungry animal, say a pigeon, is placed into a small experimental space called a Skinner box. The box contains a circular target-striking device mounted at the bird's eye-level on one wall of the chamber. By the use of a control switch it is possible to illuminate this target with one of several colored lights. The Skinner box also contains a mechanism that delivers a small amount of grain to the pigeon if and when he strikes the target. The pigeon is first taught to peck the target by rewarding or reinforcing, with food, only those responses that progressively resemble the appropriate response. When the bird is pecking at a substantial rate the response key is successively ii luminated with a red and then a green light to determine whether the pigeon has a natural tendency to peck at different rates in the presence of the two lights. Since the bird is being equally rewarded in the presence of each light st'imulus any preference will soon disappear. To establish a discrimination, conditions are arranged so that responses made in the presence of, say, the green light continue to be reinforced while those responses occuring during the presence of the red light go unreinforced. Figure 1 shows the outcome of such an experiment. Section A of the figure shows that during pre-discrimination training the rate of response to the red ahd green lights are about equal. In section B we see the expected decline in response rate to the red stimulus signalling nonreinforcement. It is, however, the response rate to the reinforced green stimulus that is of special interest; for instead of maintaining the prediscrimination rate of response we now find that the rate •has increased above baseline even though the reinforcing status of the green light has remained unchanged. The diverging response rates to the green and red lights are indicative of a discrimination and the increase rate of response above baseline level is indicative of behavioral contrast. Although we do not have a ful I explanation of behavioral contrast, in some way or another it is apparently related to the aversive or inhibiting consequences of nonreinforcement. A criticism frequently directed at behavioral research with "lower" organisms is that such work is totally irrelevant to the complex functioning of the human mind. Of what possible significance is it to us, so the argument goes, that a rat or a pigeon shows behavioral contrast while learning to discriminate red from green lights in a highly artificial environment? Consider then, the following more relevant situation. Our so called attitudes and feelings about one another are determined to a large extent by certain kinds of information we infer, experience directly, or have conveyed to us by certain others. For example, if a stranger is characterized to you as opportunistic, cunning and selfcentred, your reaction to him on first meeting will be colored by this description and will probably be negative. �20. In the following experiment, introductory psychology students were presented a series of slides of two imaginary people cal led Person A and Person B. An adjective was placed on the bottom of each slide describing the person in question. The students' task was simply to rate, on a scale from 0 (Dislike) to 5 (Like}, how much they liked the person in question after having seen the descriptive adjective. Two imaginary people were used in this experiment as a para I lel to the red and green light conditions in the pigeon experiment. Thus during the first, prediscrimination phase of the study, the adjectives describing both Person A and Person B were selected which, previous research had shown, had a "likeableness" value in the 2.5 or neutral range. A total of 10 such slides for each "person" were presented. Immediately following this, the adjectives describing Person B were changed for the worse; in fact to levels which previous research had shown were in the 0 to 1 range. Again ten such slides were used. At the same time the quantitative value of the descriptive adjectives for Person A remained unchanged so that in all, a total of 20 slides of equal value were used to describe Person A. Figure 2 shows the results of this study. Section a, the prediscrimination phase shows that both Person A and Person B were equally liked, according to the ratings. Section b shows that when negative attributes were used to characterize person B his rating dropped rapidly and approached zero. But most significantly for our purpose was the fact that although the likeableness content for Person A remained unchanged as Person B got worse, Person A's appeal increased significantly in the eyes or minds or behaviour of the students doing the rating. The experiment, therefore, points to a continuity in the formation of discriminations acrpss a wide range of species and situations. In addition the experiment suggests that behavioral contrast may be the mechanism behind various types of prejudice whereby one gains a better estimate of oneself by putting someone else down, even though the new incoming information about oneself does not warrant the enhanced evaluation. Finally on a more optimistic note, laboratory research has taught us a great deal about the nature of behavioral contrast, including several ways of preventing its formation. My students and I have extended these techniques to situations like the one described above and have obtained some promising results. At the same time we have begun to extend the idea of behavioral contrast to such diverse areas as population dynamics and marxian dialectics. BEHAVIOURAL CONTRAST B A w ~ a: LU (/) z 2 (/) w a: TRIALS Figure 1: Rate of response to a green and a red light when both are equally reinforced (Section A) and when responses to red are not reinforced while responses to green continue to be reinforced (Section 8). x is the expected projected rate of response to green, y shows the actual rate. AFFECTIVE CONTRAST a PERSON A I\ I ~-- ·~~PERSON 0 I 0 5 I I 10 15 WORD NUMBER B I 20 Figure 2: Behavioral contrast of "likeableness" ratings. In section a the information content for Person A and Person B was the same and so are the likeableness evaluations. In Section b the likeableness ratings for Person B go down as negative information is received while those for Person A go up even though the "likeableness" information remains unchanged. �ETRIC Tl ? RELY Y by: Professor John Hart, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. Almost everything that could be said about the metric system has been said in the past hundred years or so, and despite the efforts of various commissions to inject some liveliness into the subject, it's a dead issue: in the contemporary jargon, SI units are here to stay. It is a pity that some of the terms we have to use reflect the stupidity of the scientists af international standards commissions and the recalcitrance of certain nations; but the fact is that to the world at large, metrication is pretty much a dead issue, and the amount of time and effort that is going into selling the system to North America is largely wasted. Why then, Mr. Editor ( I think you were born in a metric country?) why then should I waste your readers' time with yet another article on metrication: why soil the pages of CARET with such pollution? My motivation, my dear friend, does not concern metrication as such. The decision as to which system of units a nation should use is largely a legalistic matter, and metric units have been legal in Canada for many more years than most readers of CARET have been living. The real issues concern, not metrication, but standardization, a matter which has intensely emotive, economic and political overtones. By the time this issue of CARET is published, we shall have some idea as to whether the Celsius degree will be, perhaps grudgingly, accepted; and as for other common units, most of us can recognize a metre and its one-hundredth part, the centimetre (not meter, by the way); the kilogram is now moderately familiar to the purchaser of HIGHLINER fishcakes {the housespousf??); and, if he has the cash, the lush can buy a litre of wine, (the 'large' bottle), to slake his insatiable thirst. Electricity, of c:ourse, has always been billed in metric unit~;. 1 I No - it is not the units that constitute the problem, it is the standards that we have to worry about. In this context, I do not mean the kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in the basement of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at Sevres in France. I mean the hundred grams of butter and the half-litre of lighter fluid; I also mean the screw that has one thread per millimetre and the cookie tray that is 25 by 50 centimetres. Confused? You may well be. Yet, a shift in the units of measurement gives us a glorious chance to standardize, or to use a more appropriate word - rationalize all kinds of products. ( Rationalize comes from the same root as ratio, meaning that human reasoning is at work, which is a nice put-down for manufacturers who do not rationalize!) Metrication and rationalization, though loosely connected are not entirely the same thing. To illustrate: take the time to look on the grocery shelves and see if you can spot the rationalized sardine can, as distinguished from the unrationalized one containing 127 grams. Why 127? Is it a coincidence that 127 is a prime number? What is the cost per unit weight (mass to the cognoscente) of 127 grams of sardines at 23','t? Get the point? Why not 125 (to divide by 125, multiply by 8 and divide by 1,000 - cost per kilogram, $1.84); or better still, why not 200 grams? To the everlasting credit of the manufacturers producing them, some consumer products are being rationalized on a voluntary basis. But there is in Canada, so far as I know, no enforcing legislation (except in certain special cases) specifying the normal si.z:es of packaged products; so that prod~cers are free to pack whatever weight of, say, breakfast cereal they think will have t~ e most cost-effective consumer impact, whatever that may mean! In Europe standard packages are the rule rather than the exception. All who think that the voluntary standardization of consumer products 1 �22. will be adhered to in Canada by multinational corporations, stand in the corner. There is another side to the question; and for products that manufacturers purchase (it is often forgotten that manufacturers are also consumers) the incentive for standardization is quite strong. Perhaps you service your own car? How many screwdrivers and wrenches do you need - how often do you have to make a new thread in an old hole (or use bailing wire, heaven help you) because you cannot get a screw to fit? You may be interested to know that the average vehicle uses about 3500 - yes, three thousand five hundred fasteners; and for a staggering statistic, how about the eleven to twelve thousand different fasteners used in the military hardware of the western world? By standardization, this huge inventory of nuts and bolts could be cut in half, with significant increase in the efficiency of the automotive trade. The chances of a standardization scheme sticking in a manufacturing chain are about fifty-fifty. Some schemes that al ready exist are very successful; all 35 millimetre films fit virtually all 35 millimetre cameras: some schemes have never quite made it so that typewriter ribbons and video tapes come in almost as many specifications as there are ·machines. Why are standardization schemes only moderately successful? I can identify three, though there are obviously many more than that. The first is what I cal I the foreman's elbow syndrome". (The foremen in dyeing plants long resisted the introduction of thermometers, because their elbows were quite sensitive to deviations from the required temperature.) In other words, let the others change - we've always done it our way, and our way is best". (That is why we had to throw out the perfectly sensible word Centigrade in favour of the misguided Mr. Celsius, a gentleman who got the freezing and boiling points of water inverted.) The second reason concerns the lack of perspicacity of design engineers, architects and suchlike who, faced with an intractable problem involving the fitting of one part to another 11 11 may prefer to take the easy way out and design a new part, rather than adapt the design to use existing standardized parts. Quite often, the new part does not work very well, and a piece of the product falls off. Third, there is the deliberate manufacture of a device designed to reject the product of a competitor. One classic example from World War I was the German rifle which accepted bullets of the other side, but not vice versa. Then, between the wars, there was a spate of razors with special ridges designed to reject al I but one make of blade. Today, we have vacuum cleaners with special bags: other examples will come to mind. There is one aspect of standardization to which my readers and their mentors might give some thought. It is this: how far do we want to go? Is standardization superceding reason? Is there a connection be~ tween the drab frenzy of our lives and the uniformity imposed upon us by our technological culture? Can we build a picturesque village from standard construction units, a poetic forest from standard trees, an exciting year from uniform days? Perhaps I push the argument too far. Here, for a contrasting viewpoint is Walt Whitman: A vast similitude interlocks all All spheres, grown, ungrown, small, large, suns, moon, planets, All distances of place, however wide, All distances of time, all inanimate forms, All souls, all living bodies though they be ever so, different, or in different worlds, All gaseous, watery, vegetable, mineral processes, the fishes, the brutes, All nations, colors, barbarisms, civilizations, languages All identities that have existed or may exist on this globe, or any globe All lives and deaths, all the past, present, future, This vast similitude spans them, and has always spann'd, And shall forever span them and compactly hold and enclose them. From "On the Beach at Night Alone" �HO ANY VILLAGERS? 23. an exercise in ma ematical geography by: Mr. Robert S. Dilley Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. A problem that frequently faces geographers is that of demonstrating relationships among a number of variables. It is sometimes possible to study geographical interactions under laboratory conditions: for example, glaciologists can use refrigerators to subject rocks to various kinds of freeze-thaw action. The human geographer has greater problems, in that he can observe people (though often with difficulty) but not experiment with them. A physical geographer who wants to know how flooding affects soil texture can pour water onto plots of land to his heart's content. A human geographer interested in the effect of flooding on rural communities will scarcely be popular if he opens the dikes to study the results. Moreover, real-world geographical situations, especially those involving people, usually comprise a complex series of influences, each interacting with the others. To explain this in relatively simple terms, to show how changing one variable in a given system can have repercussions throughout the system, is difficult when one cannot demonstrate the actual processes at work. To overcome this, geographers have increasingly turned to mathematics to provide models of the real world with which they can experiment. Some of these models are complicated, requiring computers to work them out. Others are much simpler, but not necessarily less illuminating for that. As an example, consider the problem of demonstrating the relationship between agricultural land, farming techniques and village size in primitive economies. What limits the size of a simple agricultural village? What happens if population grows, if new methods are introduced, if the climate changes? Anyone can see that population is likely to be higher on good land worked with advanced techniques; but how much higher? A simple model can help answer these questions by showing how the various physical and cultural features interrelate. Consider a simple, permanent agricultural village, operating as a closed system (i.e. no food is brought in from outside and none is sent elsewhere, the usual situation in undeveloped economies where local selfsufficiency is the rule. Assume, for convenience, that the villagers are entirely dependent on crop production for food. How big can that village grow? First, we have to consider how much land the vi II age has cM:1ilable. Even if it is the only settlement for a long way around, it cannot grow crops al I over that area. The farmer has to walk out to his fields in the morning, perform a full day's work, and return at night to the village. If his land is too far away he will be spending too much precious daylight in travelling. In many societies (for example, among the lnqians of North America before European colonisation) inter-village raiding was common, and field labourers were reluctant to work far from the stockade especially when cultivation was performed by the women. We can say, therefore, that the territory available to a village is roughly circular, with the radius a reasonable walking distance ( D) from the settlement and an area 11'D 2. However, not all of this area will be suitable for agriculture. Parts may be too wet, other parts too dry. Some sections may be excessively stony, or too steep, or kept under trees for firewood. Part will be occupied by the village itself. We must therefore introduce the term U for usable fraction, such that if three-quarters of the territory is usable then U = 0.75. The actual cultivable area thus becomes (,rU 2 ) (U). But under primitive conditions this area cannot be cultivated permanently. Simple agriculturalists are rarely familiar with the use of fertilisers or crop-rotation. Their practice is to grow crops on the same patch of land until, after a year or two or three, the soil is exhausted of its useful minerals and nutriments and the farmers have to go �24. on to another patch, leaving the first to rest and slowly rebuild its fertility. In time they can come back and cultivate it once more. Thus we have to introduce another factor, R, which stands for rotation, or the fraction of the total time that a given piece of land can be cultivated. Thus, if any one patch of land can be cultivated for one year in ten, or five years in fifty, then R = 0.1. The total possible area actually under crops in any one year is therefore (1'D 2 } (U} (R). To determine potential population we then need to know how much land is needed to support one person or, more conveniently, one family (it is easier to estimate the number of families in a village from the number of houses than to discover the average size of each family}. If we call the area under crops necessary to feed one family At, then the maximum possible population for the village (remembering that no other food supply is available} is clearly the total possible area under crops in any one year, (,1'0 2 ) (U) (R), divided by the area needed for each family, At. Denoting maximum population (in families) by Pt we can then express our model as (i) At This simple little formula then enables us to see how these factors interract with village size. Take, for example, a settlement where the maximum distance a farmer is prepared to walk to his fields is 2 km. (1¼ miles), where half the land is usable for agriculture, where crops are grown on each patch one year in ten and 2 ha. (5 c1cres} are needed to support one family: all reasonable figures. In that case p = {712 2 ) (0.5) (0.1) = 31,;4 (ii) t 0.02 The village could thus grow to a little over 30 families. (Note that the denominator has to be written as 0.02 square kilometers, rather than 2 hectares, to be in the same unit as D2. Try working that out with miles and acres and you become an instant convert to metrication). The importance of travel-to-work can easily be illustrated. If the villagers become reluctant to move more than 1 km. from their homes, owing to frequent raids, hungry tigers or laziness, then the formula reads Pt = (?f12) (0.5) (0.1) = 7.85 0.02 (iii) Halving the distance travel led thus reduces village size to less than 8 families. On the other hand, if the villagers in (ii) begin to use some fertiliser they may be able to cultivate their patches twice as long before moving on. This will increase R, and the formula will read p = ~22) (0.5) (0.2) = 62 8 (iv) t 0.02 • allowing a doubling of population. Alternatively, we can look at it another way and ask what happens to the vii lage in (ii} if the population increases beyond 31 families? Obviously, if Pt> 31.4 then At must · be reduced, giving • everyone less to eat; or R must be increased, giving the soil insufficient time to recover and leading to disastrous soil exhaustion; or U or D must be increased, which may not be possible. Faced with population growth, therefore, village (ii) must starve, change its ways, or send the surplus population off to start a new village. We can use this model to observe other factors than population. Take, in this instance, a village of 35 families, accustomed to travelling up to 1.75 km. to their fields, using three-fifths of the land and resting each patch seven years for each year of cultivation. How much land is available for each farmer? We know from (i} that (?1'1.752) (0.6) (0.125) = (v) 35 At Therefore • At = (11'1.752)(~:)(0.125) = 0.0206km2(vi) or fractionally over 2 hectares. Further sophistication could be introduced. At could be varied to include food produced from pastoralism, which would probably involve modification of D, (people usually being willing to travel further to their stock than to their crops), of U, (land unsuitable for cropping may be grazed}, and of R, (pasture needing a different resting cycle). If a number of villages occupy an area and claim all the land, then the territory of each may be calculated without reference to ,rD 2 , and so on. The model is clearly too simple to be applied directly for research on the real world; it gives only potential and not actual populations. It can, however, be (continued page 35) �QUALITY or UANTITY: the by: Dr. Paul Barclay-Estrup Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. (from an address given to the Calgary Teachers Convention in February 1974.) Ten years ago, when someone said that our society and possibly our planet was heading for a serious crisis, the warning was either ignored or judged alarmist by most people. Five years ago, a similar pronouncement was taken into consideration, at least by more thoughtful people, but today perhaps . even a majority of people are considering a crisis as a real prospect. Considering is the key word here, because far from a majority yet believe that there is a serious crisis; even fewer are proposing solutions, and virtually no preventative action is being taken. We are faced with a refusal of consciousness. Many intelligent people still pretend that "nine to five" is the real world, and that talk of disaster is a fad or fashion, idle chatter, the invention of TV, a communist plot, or a plot of vested interests. It is possible that the doom and gloom statistics are al I misleading, and some very qualified people are of this opinion. The doomsters draw Ii nes on graphs and extend them into the future, a method which has produced some really frightening predictions. For example, if the present birth rate continues, by the year 6084 solid waves of people will be expanding away from earth into the universe at the speed of light. It's true that doomsters have sometimes been proven wrong. One sceptic in Britain has pointed out that if the use of horses had continued to increase in Britain as much after 1870 as it did between 1800 and 1870, then by 1970 the entire surface of the earth would have been six feet deep in horse manure. But sceptics aside, many people, especially professional ecologists, are firmly convinced that there is a potential catastrophe both for mankind and for most life on this planet, if changes are not instituted soon. ■ oder■ dile 25. a The root cause of this impending catastrophe is easy enough to identify: Too Many People. Too Many People, in Too Little Space, with Too Few Resources. What is the present status of the world's population? This year, 1974, is World Population Year. At last, the United Nations has officially recognized that there is a population problem. "74 in '74" could be the slogan, for at the end of this year there will be 74 million more people than there were in the begining of the year. That's over 200,000 more people each day of the year. China now has over 800,000,000 people and India almost 600,000,000, and half of this large number are children under 18. In 1975 the population of the earth will be four billion. When I graduated from high school in 1948, it was considerably less than three billion. If the present rate of growth continues, by the year 2074 there will be 30 billion people. If somehow we could immediately reduce the increase to replacement level (two children per family), there would still be over six billion people by 2050. If somehow we could limit families to only one child, it would take another 30 years before the population of the earth would stop increasing! Malthus made two predictions: one, that there would be world over-population, and two, that this would be followed by mass deaths by starvation. His first prediction has come true. We must do everything we can to ensure that the second prediction does not come true as wel I. What can we do? The answer is simple enough: first, we stop the growth, and then we reduce the population to a level that can be maintained at a high standard of living and contentment without removing the capital resources of this planet. The trouble with simple solutions is that they tend to be full of unknown variables. Is man a truly reasoning being, or is he �26. primarily controlled by basic biological instincts and reactions? What sort of situation makes man content? What is a "reasonable" standard of living? There is no way in which the present world population of almost four billion can be brought even close to present Canadian living standards. Each Canadian uses over 20 times as much total resources per year as an average citizen of India. We use 30 times as much sugar and over 50 times as much energy. It is not the poor, but the rich of this world who are threatening the survival of Spaceship Earth. So population must be reduced to a size which will suit the resources of our planet. What size is that? We do not know. This question must be answered by agriculturalists, foresters, geographers and ecologists. A worldwide study of resources and consumption trends is urgently required. (Some population proposals have already been made by ecologists. One estimate for maximum population in the U.S. is 30 to 50 million - less than ¼ of the present U.S. population - which if extended to Canada would mean a maximum of three to five million in this country!) What happens if we continue uninterrupted growth? We luckier people in the "have" countries may be able to develop some kind of huge multi-storied cities. Perhaps our technology will provide space and food. What might the future .hold, then, for us? Food for us looks O.K., at least in quantity. Canada, New Zea1and, Australia and Argentina are the last net food exporting countries (although in 1969, for the first time, low grain exports meant that even we in Canada imported more food in dollars than we exported). In Canada, we produce enough food to feed about 50 million people. So we have enough quantity for perhaps the next 50 years - assuming of course that other people who are in short supply don't take it away from us. Quality? It doesn't look quite so good. Meat and fish supplies will continue to decrease, and prices will keep on rising. Many imported luxury foods will become scarce or very expensive as populations in tropical areas increase. For example, coffee, tea, spices, tropical fruit and even tomatoes are threatened. (Did you know that Canadians drink three times as much tea per capita as Americans, and that we import more fresh tomatoes per capita than any other nation? All tea and most tomatoes are imported.) We may or may not like the North American car-culture, but we must live with it, anyway. A change in life-style here looks inevitable: smaller cars, fewer long trips, fewer week-ends away from the city, slower transport and more traffic problems. What about interpersonal relationships? As people move frequently, from country to city or from city to city, many relationships are strained or broken. The result is galloping social instability and an alarming increase in, for example, the number of runaway children: 600,000 in the U.S. in 1973. The Canadian rate is likely to be substantially lower (perhaps 30,000), but still significant. In 1968, divorce rates in Canada were 60 per 100,000 of population and 300 per 100,000 in the U.S. Will we duplicate the U.S. rate, now five times our own, in the future? At levels less basic than the family level work, social, school levels - antagonism and stress are commonplace. Hierarchies and social systems are made unstable by deliberate policies of transferring individuals. Status and position are frequently ephemeral and insecure, driving the individual to greater efforts to achieve them. There are plenty of other products of unrestricted growth - air pollution, lead, cadmium and mercury poisoning, alcoholism, cancer, crime and drug rates, the possibility of biological or nuclear war - to worry about, too. And what about natural �27. plant and animal communities? Hundreds of bird and mammal species are in danger of extinction. Whole ecosystems the world over are being threatened. It is quite certain that the destruction of plant systems alone will result in the extinction of at least 10,000 species in the next 20 to 30 • years. Who cares? Many people are concerned about the deteriorating quality of our lives, but too often they are not our leading politicians. Politicians did not arouse the world to the population and environmental crisis, and if left to themselves, they will not generate the .necessary action. It is up to you, the individual citizen. Write letters to your M.P. and M. L.A. Attend political meetings; organize all-party symposia with the aim of getting individual politicians to take a definite stand. Withdraw support from a politician who goes back on his word on the issues involved. Form a non-partisan pressure group -' people interested in environmental quality are not limited to any one party - and take on one problem at a time. Try to avoid confrontations and hardened posi- tions that lead to useless deadlocks. Even one or two persistent and dedicated individuals can be enough to bring and keep an issue before the general public. Most of our problems can be solved. We can have both quantity and quality in our lives - but only if the major problem of over-population is treated. Treatment of symptoms such as fuel shortages and pollution are otherwise meaningless and perhaps even detrimental in the long term. If our government will institute a rational population program - and years are involved - surely we will all do everything we can to save our resources and try to help those in great need. But I, for one, wi II do very Httle to support stop-gap policies that can only lead to greater shortages and less quality in the future. Without such a new trend we might as well enjoy life to the full. Be daring: drive an eight cylinder, 450 horsepower car. Heat your house to 75 degrees. Burn your Christmas lights 12 months of the year. In the words of Paul Erhlich, "If you are sailing on the Titanic, you might as wen go first class." SOLUTIONS TO PREVIOUS PUZZLES: UNITS THE AVIARY �FLIERS, STINGERS AND BITERS ACROSS 1. Groups of fliers, stingers and biters (6,8) 7. The family of 17 down is nothing if not geometric (5) 9. The butterfly that commands a vessel (7) 10. A steady worker (6) 11. This wasp is not necessarily Australian, mate (6) 13. A small arachnid associated with widows (4) 14. A glimpse is a chirp (4) 15. If all insects survived, they would swiftly do this to our world (6) 18. A dull fellow, found somewhat disheveled in a laundry (6) 19. Ringlike (7) 21. A tiny primitive fly, larger than 13 (5) 22. Are these insects in Sergeant Pepper's Company? (7,7) DOWN 1. They are the epitome of biological control (9,5) 2. Glow worms and Fireflies do it (7) 3. Nobody could call them 5 down: they 14 down (4) 4. The leaf-cutters do this very neatly (6) 5. The grasshopper is typified (5) 6. Small flies that wou Id be usefu I to a hostess before a party if they could only spin what they purport to (6,8) 8. Probably the most revolting insect of all (3,3) 12. A biter, distressing to cattle (6) 14. See 3 down (7) 16. This Indian antelope may be ailing (6) 17. A slow 7 across 20. Hark! If you listen carefully, you can hear a Myrmeleon ! (4) Puzzle by Professor John Hart, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay �Ill I NEED A CAlCU TOR IN UNIVERSITY? by: Professor C. Kent, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. This is a question more and more often directed to university profs these days by high school students, and also by students already in university. The space-age spin-off of micro-electronic circuits has placed high capacity calculators within the economic reach of a lot of people. Even students on limited budgets can strain to afford them, and the manufacturers haven't failed to notice the possibilities in the student market. In the Thunder Bay Sears the other weekend, I was looking over the display of chained-down and otherwise guarded calculators when a proud parent and universityage son arrived to buy a calculator to replace the one he had bought the month before. This month's model offered more functions than last rnonth's. Herein lies a trap. The price of these calculators has been dropping rapidly or, put another way, the capabilities of the calculators available at a fixed price have been rising rapidly. But, they are still expensive toys and keeping up with the Jones' latest hand-held calculator can be expensive. I think the best answer br the university, or university-bound student, thinking of buying a calculator is that it is not necessary to have one to survive in university. University professors try not to impose arbitrary rules on their students, and they don't prevent students who have calculators from using them in class, but they try to devise test and exam problems so that the student with a calculator has no essential advantage over his poorer cousin without one. Of course, if you are going to study engineering, or applied science, there will be a greater opportunity for you to use and profit from your own calculator than if you plan to study math, or physics. Even so, the ready availability of the large scale university computer to students, and the 29. increasing occurrence of mini-computers offer more than adequate opportunity for you to handle these big data processing assignments. At Lakehead University more and more of our first year students are getting heavily involved with the university computer and are learning, along the way, much more useful programming skills than how to punch the buttons on a 3x4 inch keyboard. The New Scientist of February 27, 1975, contains a good article titled The electronic slide-rule comes of age". The economics of the manufacture and marketing of the hand-held micro computers (or calculators) is surveyed, along with a list of the functions available in the various models. That article is well worth reading if you are thinking about buying a calculator, and can get your hands on New Scientist, which is an English magazine. If you can't, here are some highlights. The Hewlett-Packard calculators are the Cadillacs of the species. HP got an early start and has kept ahead of the competition by offering increasingly sophisticated and capable calculators. These range from the (now old-fashioned) HP-21, at about $200 through the super-Cadillac HP65 which sports 20 addressable registers, a 100 step programmable facility, magnetic tape read-in and read-out, user definable keys, and the sporty price of $800-$1000. Our Department owns a HP65 but I notice that it is used far less often than the much simpler Texas Instrument SR50, selling for about $200. Sears sells an instument virtually identical to the SR50, with full transcendental function complement, for a little under $100 when you catch a sale. The New Scientist says that hand-held programmable calculators not unlike the super Cadillac HP65 will appear on the market in mid-1975 for a little over $200. This is typical of the fierce competition now going on to capture the market, especially the student market. 0 �30. As a guide for potential purchasers, New Scientist give a table of the expected costs of the various functions that can be purchased in a 'hand-held', as follows: Functions Price +, -, X, + $20 1~ 5 x2 5 rx sin, cos, tan/Arc Hyperbolic Memo~ Ln x/ex Logx/10x xY x! Degrees/Radians 1r s 20 12 12 10 7 12 5 2.50 2.50 The typical cost breakdown for manufacturing and marketing a calculator selling for $84 is interesting: Integrated circuit ................. 8.50 Semiconductors .................. 1.20 Display ......................... 3.20 Keyboard ....................... 2.40 Case ............................ .50 Misc............................. .50 Rechargable battery ............... 3.20 Charger/A.C. adaptor .............. 2.50 Total parts cost ...........-.... 22.00 Labour ....................... 2.00 Manufacturing cost ............ 24.00 Overhead, marketing cost, man. profit36.00 Factory selling price ........... 60.00 Retai I markup .................. 24.00 Recommended retail price ....... 84.00 The same issue of New Scientist contains ads for the Texas Instrument SR50 ranging in price from $165 (from a "Discount House" in King's Cross, London) to just over $200. It would appear that these calculators can be had for about 20% off suggested retail price, if you know where to look. (Our Department recently bought SR50's for $150 from a Toronto firm). There is apparently still no wholesale "dumping" of the moderately sophisticated scientific type calculators on the market, but the simplest types have recently dropped into the $20 range, and a qreak in price of the others may not be far off. One thing I find disturbingly missing in the published information about the handheld calculators is information about their reliability and durability. An engineer friend recently told me that, if one of these baubles goes awry, forget it. His feeling is that it would cost more to repair than to replace. If his appraisal is correct, and the lifetime doesn't exceed the guarantee period (usually a year from a reliable vendor) then keeping yourself in calculators could be an expensive business. Another consideration for the Northwestern Ontarians could be the "down time" to send a calculator away for repairs if it goes bust, even in_the guarantee period. I have been told that Sears' policy is simply to hand you a new calculator if something goes wrong during their guarantee period. That could be worth investigating but I wonder how often they go through the exercise on essentially new calculators. All in all, your own hand-held calculator really isn't necessary in university, although it can be helpful in professional programs like engineering, or in upper year courses like statistics. Even in a program where a calculator would be handy, it probably isn't really too useful in the first year. It may be later, but the way prices are dropping and in view of the very limited experience people have had with their durability, I think my $200 will stay in the bank for a while yet. If, and when, you do decide to buy your own calculator you will face the decision on how much complexity to buy. The price very directly reflects the complexity and little else. New Scientist suggest that the cost premium you should be willing to pay for a "big name" manufacturer is not over $25, while you can see from the figures above that $25 is the cost of a very few additional functions. Your planned use of the calculator dictates the complexity and price. If you are �31. going to use the device only for simple arithmetic of the balance sheet variety, you can get by with a $20 calculator with +, x, , +. The number of digits on the display should probably be greater than six, but ten is an extravagance. Eight should do nicely. "Floating point" decimal presentation is also unnecessary for simple arithmetic. The next step up in complexity which will be usable will surely include a memory (one register will do) and "floating point". This extra capacity will allow you to cope with most of the calculations in statistics. Squaring, square-root and reciprocal keys would be convenient at this stage but are not really necessary. With a memory register there are simple "algorithms" in the user manuals which allow you to do your own thing with square-roots, cube-roots, etc. The increasing cost of dry cell batteries makes a rechargable calculator battery a wise investment if you intend to make much use of your hand-held. You should easily get one of these calculators for $50-60. Only if you seriously intend to be an engineer, chemist, experimental physicist or econometrician would one of the "electronic slide rule" types with full scientific notation and transcendental functions be likely to be useful. The SR50, or comparable Sears or Eaton's models retail here for $100-$200. SETT ES by: Dr. L.K. Roy, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. The final step up to a programmable job, like the HP55/65, or comparable 'cheapies' to appear, is probably justified only for the serious practicing scientist or engineer. Some upper year students of these disciplines could find them useful, but only if they are "computer nuts" who develop their own procedures and programs for doing often repeated problems, or simply like to experiment with the procedures themselves. Here, however, these students are much better advised to use a mImcomputer or large scale digital, and really get their teeth into a problem. It may be strange to hear, but a math major in university probably will have less use for a hand-held calculator than almost any other type of student except history majors. Finally, a personal prejudice or two. Special purpose calculators, for converting Fahrenheit to Celsius, or Acres to Hectares, are close to useless for the average human being. Unless you plan a career in the weights and measures business converting into and out of metric sizes, save your money. Even a percent key on an otherwise standard calculator is silly. If you can't multiply by 100 you've got no business having that thing in your hand in the first place. AT E E BET 1. The Gold Coin Gambit Three boxes, identical in appearance, are There may not be a sucker born every minute but many people still find plenty of opportunity to lose money on what seems to be a fair bet. In the following examples bets are proposed by a smooth operator (cal I him the Artist) and accepted by a person who tricks himself into believing the bet is a fair one (call him the Mark). placed on a table. One contains 2 gold coins, another contains 2 silver coins, and the last contains one silver coin and one gold coin. Two Gold Coins Two Silver Coins One Gold One Silver �32. A neutral person selects a box at random, opens it, and draws one coin from it. Suppose a gold coin was drawn. The Artist makes the following bet with the Mark: "I bet you even money that the other coin in the box is also gold." The Mark thinks to himself: "The other coin could either be silver or gold. Also, it is obvious that this box is not the box with the 2 silver coins. So this box has an equal chance of either being the box with 2 gold coins or the box with one silver coin and one gold." He concludes that the bet is a fair one. In fact there are two chances in three that the box being considered is the one with the two gold coins! Think of it this way: if the box is the one with a silver coin and a gold coin, there is one chance in two of drawing a gold coin. There are two chances in two of drawing a gold coin from the box with the two gold coins. So once we have the information that a gold coin was indeed drawn, the box with the two gold coins becomes twice as probable as the box with one silver and one gold coin. 2. The Birthday Booby-Trap The Artist and the Mark attend a party at which a total of 40 people are present. The Artist bets that at least two people in the room will have the same birthday. The Mark happily accepts the bet since there are only 40 people in the room and 365 possible birthdays. Actually, the odds are not at all in the Mark's favour. Pick one person and determine his birthday. The next person selected has 364 other choices of birthday, so the probability that the two do not have the same birthday is 364/365. The third person selected still has 363 other choices of birthday so that the probability of the three having different birthdays is 364/365 times 363/365. For the forty people, the probability of none having the same birthday is a product of 39 fractions (364) (363) (362) ... (326) = 0.109 365 365 365 365 So the Mark has about one chance in 10 of winning. In fact the breakeven point occurs when there are only 23 people present in which case the Mark's probability of winning is 0.493. 3.. The Odd-Numbered Dice The Artist presents the Mark with 4 dice. Blue l9m9l91 Green 13131111 White Red The Mark is invited to choose any one of the 4 dice, after which the Artist will choose one of the remaining 3 dice. Both persons will roll their dice and the person who rolls the highest number will win. The Mark thinks to himself: "Obviously one of these dice is a better choice than the others. As soon as I determine which it is, I will begin to make some money." Suppose the Mark chooses the red die since it has the highest number (13). The Artist would choose the green die and would have probability 2/3 of winning. Green 7 5 5 5 Red 5 13 13 7 7 7 7 7 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X -- --- -- --- -- -- -- -- In the above table an X indicates a win for the Artist. Of the 36 possible combinations of green-red values, the Artist wins 24 of them. After losing for a while the Mark may switch to the green die. As soon as he does, the Artist picks the blue die. �33. Blue 1 7 7 7 Green 7 7 7 1 -- --- -- -- -- AN ANALYSIS OF THE GAME OF KENO 9 9 9 9 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Again, 24 of 36 possible blue-green combinations mean a win for the Artist When the Mark switches to blue, the Artist switches to white. White 3 Blue 1 1 9 9 9 9 3 3 11 11 11 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ----- Again, 24 of 36 white-blue combinations favour the Artist. The Mark begins to reason as follows: "White beats blue, blue beats green, green beats red. So white beats everything. I'll choose white and eventually I 'II make a fortune." The Artist chooses red. Red 3 3 3 White 11 11 11 5 X .x X X X X X X X X X X X X -- -- ---- X X X X X X -- -- -- The game of Keno is played in Las Vegas as follows: The player chooses 8 of the numbers 1 through 80. Then 20 numbers are drawn at random from the number 1 through 80. If among these 20 numbers the player has chosen 5, 6, 7 or 8 correctly he wins $5, $50, $1,100, $12,500 respectively. The player pays $1 to play. 0 ~ ~ , ways of ran20 0 domly choosing the 20 numbers. There are There are{ {~)= ~! ~~-x) matching )= p{x> --- ,),( Again, 24 of 36 red-white combinations mean a loss for the Mark. The Mark's mistake is in choosing which die he wants to use first. Once the Mark has chosen, the Artist can make his choice so that he will win 2 tosses out of 3. ways of x of these 20 8 selections and player's _ (~X 2l~) - (~g) Thus the probability of winning $5 is 5 13 13 :,X ,,'•X,'-,X the ) = 721 ways of the re( 72-x {20-x) ! (52+x) ! 20 maining (20-x) numbers not matching. So the probability of x matching numbers is p(5) 5 -- 5 by: Dr. l.K. Roy, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. -- (:)(;~) l ) = .01s3 of winning $50 is p{6) (:)(~~) = ( ~g) =.0024 of winning $1,100 is p{7) = mm) =.00016 (~g) and of winning $12,500 is p{8) = men (~g) = 000004 • The expected winnings of a player, each time he plays is 5 p(5) + 50 p(6) + 1100 p(7) + 1250 p(8) = 5(.0183) + 50(.0024) + 1100(.00016) + 12500(.000004) 0.4375 dollars. �34_ IS THE MIND A MATERIAL OBJECT? ---·------ ~- - -- OR WHY DOES GLASS SHATTER? by: Dr. J. Douglas Rabb, lakehead University, Thunder Bay. Can dispositions be causes? This rather obscure question is, I believe, one of the most important unresolved issues in con- temporary philosophy. Not only does the truth of two radically different accounts of mind and/or mental events depend on the answer to this question; but this problem is also at the basis of two quite different views of the nature of scientific explanation. The two accounts of mind are represented on the one hand by Gilbert Ryle's behaviouristic analysis in The Concept of Mind and on the other hand by D.M. Armstrong's central-state materialism as presented in A Materialist Theory of Mind. The behaviourist claims that words which seem to refer to so cal led mental events do not in fact, refer to events at all. Rather they signify that the organism is liable or disposed to display certain sorts of behaviour. So, for example, to believe that it is raining is not to entertain the thought that it is raining, it is simply to have a tendency to wear a coat if one goes out, to have no inclination to wash the car or water the garden, to be disposed to answer in the affirmative if asked if it is raining and so forth. The central state materialist on the other hand does not deny that there may wel I be events which we describe as mental. However, the materialist claims that these events are, in actual fact, events occuring in the brain or central nervous system. The materialist would argue against the behaviourist that there must be a state of the central nervous system which causes the organism to be disposed to behave in the way it does. Ryle, the behaviourist, seems to hold a Phenomenalist or Operationalist position concerning scientific explanation whereas Armstrong is a proclaimed Realist. For example, Ryle states that: When we describe glass as brittle or sugar as soluble, we are using dispositional concepts, the logical force of which is this. The brittleness of glass does not consist in the fact that it is at a given moment actually being shivered. It may be brittle without ever being shivered. To say that it is brittle is to say that if it ever is, or ever had been struck or strained, it would fly, or would have flown into fragments. To say that sugar is soluble is to say that it would dissolve, or would have dissolved if immersed in water. 1 On the other hand Armstrong argues that: . . . in asserting that a certain piece of glass is brittle, for instance, we are ipso facto asserting that it is in a certain non-dispositional state which disposes it to shatter and fly apart in a wide variety of circumstances. . .. The Realist view gains some support from ordinary language, where we often seem to identify a disposition and its 'categorical basis'. ('It has been found that brittleness is a certain sort of molecular pattern in the material. ')2 Withc-_crucial issues in both the Philosophy of Mind and the Philosophy of Science hanging in the balance, it is little wonder that the question 'Can dispositions be causes?' has generated such vigorous debate. 3 In this paper I wish to propose a compromise which, I hope, will be acceptable to both sides of this important dispute. I begin with the following illustration. An Enlightening Crash Suppose I raise my glass of wine and propose a toast to Professors Armstrong, Ryle and their respective followers in appreciation of their valiant efforts to settle this important question. Suppose further that, as is the custom in proposing such toasts, after downing the wine I throw the glass with considerable force into the fireplace and the glass, as is its custom, shatters. This very brief story allows me to generate a seri~s of question which, I hope, will be illuminating. The first question is: 01 Why did the glass break (shatter)? �35. The most obvious and answer to question 0 1 is: straight-forward A 1 Because it hit the hearth with considerable force. Answer A 1 , however, generates two further sorts of questions which I will class with obvious bias, as interesting and uninteresting. To state the uninteresting one first: U02 Why did the glass hit the hearth with considerable force? It should be noted, of course, that U02 is only uninteresting considering our present purposes. It might well, in other contexts, lead to some very interesting questions in the Philosophy of Action as well as to some intriguing sociological and psychological ones about certain drinking habits. Note also that the subscript '2' in these questions is intended only to indicate that they are in response to the answer to a previous question, viz., '0 1 '. The interesting question raised by A 1 is this: I02 Why did the glass break when it hit the hearth with considerable force? The straight-forward answer to question 102 is simply: A 2 Because it is fragile (brittle). However, answer A 2 also generates two further kinds of questions which I shall again class as interesting and uninteresting. First the uninteresting question: The sense in which 103 is a different question from U0 3 , and the sense in which I interpret it, is that in which it is a conceptual question. In most cases it would only be asked by someone who did not know the meaning of the English words "brittle" and "fragile". The Oxford English Dictionary defines "brittle", for example, as "liable to break'', and once this definition has been understood, question 103 has been answered and rendered pointless. Note that answering 103 does not., of course, render U03 pointless. It should be equally obvious that no answer to U03 could possibly serve as an adequate answer to 103 . In conclusion it should be noted that we may wel I be tempted to raise question I 03 in response to some of the more technical answers to U03 . However such a temptation should not be surprising for as has been wisely observed: The theoretically interesting category-mistakes are made by people who are perfectly competent to apply concepts, at least in situations with which they are familiar, but are still liable in their abstract thinking to allocate those concepts to logical types to which they do not belong. 4 Footnotes 1. G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind, (London, 1949), p.43 UQ3 Why is it fragile? or What makes it fragile? 2. O.M. Armstrong, A Materialist Theory of Mind, (London, 1968), p.86. Question U0 3 is a question for the physicist and any answer to it would likely make reference to the molecular pattern of the glass etc., as Armstrong has noted in the quotation cited above. However the philosophically significant question raised by answer A 2 is of quite a different sort: 3. See for example: R. Squires, "Are Dispositions Causes?", Analysis, Dec., 1968. D.M. Armstrong, "Dispositions Are Causes", Analysis, Oct., 1969. R. Squires, "Are Dispositions Lost Causes?" Analysis, Oct., 1970. IQ3 Yes I know it was brittle but why did it break when it hit the hearth with considerable force? or Why do fragile things shatter when hit with considerable force? Admittedly one way of interpreting question 103 is simply as an oblique way of asking U0 3 . But such an interpretation would be neither interesting nor instructive. 4. Op. cit. The Concept of Mind, p. 17. HOW MANY VILLAGERS? ..... (from p. 24) used as a check on improbable claims for village sizes or food production, past or present. Best of all, it is a useful teaching device, showing clearly and simply the interrelatedness of the physical environment, human skills and population. �36. by: Dr. Brian A.M. Phillips lakehead University, Thunder Bay. Somewhere between the ti me of the historic voyages of discovery and the present, it has become firmly fixed in people's minds that Geography is al I about longest rivers and highest mountains, and that geographers spend their time colouring-in maps. There is often a grain of truth in the most distorted views, and in the process of persuing their long claimed interest in spatial correlations of criteria of, on, or above the earth's surface Geographers frequently use a variety of forms of visual display, collectively termed 'maps'. Cartography is considered by most to be the science of the preparation of all types of maps, plans, charts and statistical dia- grams. In its widest definition this would include every operation from the initial surveying to the design drafting and final printing. However, a more limited viewpoint tends to focus attention on the maps themselves, and examines them as useful devices for the display, comparison and analysis of spatially disposed data of all kinds. Any data which are arranged in space can be mapped whether they be 'solid' visible data such as elevation or population, or whether they be less tangible data, such as recreation potential or mental distance. Despite an enthusiastic but unfortunate student who once concluded an essay on the use of maps by stating that 0 The Geographer has been blessed with a mighty tool which he should learn to use to its fullest extent", it is not only geographers who use maps, but also any persons whose interests involve spatial relationships. A biologist may map a single cell; an engineer may map the stress in a length of steel, a sociologist may map the pattern of crime in a city; a novelist may map the imaginary land in which his characters move. So what are maps? One way of considering maps is to think of them as 'thematic' (an adjective derived from the noun "theme") displays. Whereas a conventional air photograph faithfully records every object visible within the field of view of the camera without selection, a map portrays a selection of criteria. As such it is emphasizing some criteria to the exclusion of others, and is therefore 'thematic'. Furthermore, within the scales in which maps are commonly drafted and reproduced, it is often not feasible to map every single item of a selected criterion. If one had the task of mapping individual political affiliation in a residential area, one would seek a representative sample of households from which to obtain data. Hence, a map is not only thematic, but is a visual transformation (by cartographic methods) of data which are a subset of the possible available data. Similarly, a map is itself a subset of a set or 'Supermap', which is all that can possibly be mapped. While the map portrays data in pictorial form it serves, in effect, as a storage device for those data. Hence agricultural statistics may be stored both as tabulated figures and as a series of thematic maps. Since, in very many cases, the data sample is temporal, that i_s, representative of one moment in time, the map also serves the function of an historical document. Indeed, unless the delay between data collection and map production is very small, the very first copy of a new map may stil I be an 'historical document' if the criteria with which it is concerned are dynamic. A map of occupied dwellings in an urban area may only represent the real situation for less than a day. While this may seem to be a negative element, advantages are derived from the sequential nature of many maps. A series of maps of the distribution of the same criteria in the same area at specific points in time may be examined in sequence. The historical nature of each map �37. is the basis of comparative analysis, and the changing pattern of the dynamic variables can be discerned. A most dramatic visual display of urban growth may be obtained by examining a sequence of maps of five year intervals and filming each for a few seconds in turn. The resulting short film will demonstrate the 'amoeboid' growth of suburbia in a manner greatly more appealing and effective than the examination of tables of population or housing statistics. A map may serve as a data-storage device, as an historical document and as a part of a sequential series. To retrieve those data requires a further transformation, that of map interpretation. Map interpretation might be described as an art, an ability gained by experience rather than by learning alone. However, though a map interpreter may be highly skilled, data will only be retrieved from a map if that map clearly and unambiguously portrays that which is intended. The premap decisions to be made by a cartographer are many and difficult, for they require a truly interdisciplinary understanding. Not only must he fully appreciate the business of mapping, but he must fully understand the spatial processes governing the criteria that are to be mapped, and the manner by which a map reader gains information from a map. Ideally, a well designed map will transfer to the interpreter all the data put into it, and also generate fresh ideas. Such a map is said to have a high 'map transfer function'. Problems often arise in the matter of map design. However attractivelooking and skilfully-drawn is a map, unless it rapidly and unambiguously transmits its data at an equivalent or greater rate than the initial form of the raw data would have done, its function is utterly lost. Our texts and news media are full of pretty maps which are far more difficult to understand than the original raw data which they purport to represent visually. Designing maps involves an understanding of some psychophysical phenomena, and also involves one with the limitations of cartographic language. For example, on this page the writer can control the order in which bits of information are transmitted to the reader, since it is known that the symbols used (the groups of letters or words) will be read in a particular and continuous manner (i.e. left to right, top to bottom in Canada). However, the map designer has very little control on the order in which the cartographic language (point, line and area symbols) will be read, since one cannot foretell at which point within the map boundary the reader will look first, nor which point might be viewed next, and so on. The human eye scans a visual display in a series of foveal fixations. During any one fixation the brain receives data from the central part of the field of view (the fovea) which it appears to concentrate upon, but it also simultaneously receives data from the remaining part of the field of view (the extra-foveal area). Thus, a single item of information may be observed only once foveal ly, but may be reinforced extrafoveally several times during adjacent fixations. While ttie eye is capable of receivin_g about three million bits of information a second, the brain can only account consciously for about sixteen bits per second. Our brains perform the incredible task of data reduction. The efficiency with which this task is achieved is governed partly by the ability to class data and to link them to familiar knowledge, or by the ability to reject and ignore them. These processes take time, and depend ultimately upon the perceptual ability of the observer. The processes of visual search are the subject of much research, but the application of such research to map design has only recently been recognized. For example, in tests in which subjects have been asked to locate a specific target within a display of a variety of unalike and similarlooking targets, the results indicate that some commonly used map techniques are ineffective. Results show, for example, that search time is least when the target is discriminated by colour, and greatest when �38. shape alone is the discriminating factor. Hence, it is found easier to locate a red target in a display of targets of several colours than to locate a circle in a display of targets of several shapes. It is also discovered that it takes longer for the brain to reject similar looking targets than to reject unalike targets. Suppose a map has one hundred and twenty black targets (e.g. symbols) one of which was the target to be located. Visual search time would be x seconds (case A). To find the same target in a display of sixty black targets predictably takes %x seconds (case 8). However, to find the same black target in a display of sixty red targets and sixty black targets (case C) will be found to take more than %x seconds, but considerably less than x seconds, though the total number of targets was the same as in case A. The reason for this is that the brain rapidly rejects or filters out the non targets (red) and less rapidly matches and rejects the remaining fifty-nine similar targets. In view of the common use of differences in size and shape of symbols on maps rather than differences in colour, this type of research could herald some radical changes in future map design techniques. At this point it is seen that "colouring-in maps" is a far too simple view of the geographer's task. In the words of one eminent cartographer .,,Whoever has a knowledge of cartography is convinced that it is more difficult to compile a good map than it is to write a good book. In the latter situation one does not need seriously to torment himself with precision because where ideas fail it is easy to shirk obstacles by the skilful use of words." Raisz - 1962. Problems of map design are by no means the only ones facing today's cartographer. We are in the midst of a quiet but rapid cartographic revolution, largely because our ability to collect data has outstripped conventional methods of storing, displaying, retrieving and analysing them. The long standing conventional topographic map, often printed about two to five years after initial survey and infrequently updated, is now simply insufficient for the planner concerned with the rapidly changing situation in our major population areas. Quantities of data now being made available to those responsible for planning and managing our natural and urban environments can no longer be transformed into visual form by manual drafting at a rate sufficient to keep up with supply. Furthermore, people are increasingly concerned both with more complex and less directly derived data. Pre-map statistical processing of large volumes of data is best handled by computers, and the 1970's are likely to be known as the decade of computer mapping. Although the map draftsman is by no means obsolete, anyone claiming to be interested in dynamic patterns of spatially arranged data now uses computer generated maps. Experimental maps of many kinds are now providing exciting and challenging new approaches to mapping, and the changing face of modern cartographic methods is so rapid that it is hard for an individual to keep pace with it. Discussion of specific map types and map related problems would be best reserved for further short papers. Meanwhile,, where appropriate, the computer may be given the task of colouring-in and analysing some maps. True or False? genome: one complete set of chromosomes, a chromosome complement. Ordinarily, a gamete has one genome (is haploid), a zygote has two (is diploid). gnome: in folklore, a tiny subterranean creature said to be guardian of hidden treasures. One letter does make a lot of difference! Which of these are used synonymously, and what is the preferable spelling: glycerine, glycerol, glycine, glycinol, glycol, xylene, xylol? �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. "CARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E 1 �PLEAS L E ABOUT FOR OTHERS TO READ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 5 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 5, May 1975. Articles on a variety of topics: Letters to the Editor Scholarships Pressing plants and studying the dried specimens Dr. A N Hughe's time spent in Thailand to study chemistry Asbestos contamination of Lake Superior Organisms and adaptation Metrication Mathematical grography Quality or quantity, study of too many people with too little space and resources and predictions for the future 2074 Calculators in university Cartography Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-05 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e52be80c6cfc26e1bb8a329a4615ed93.pdf f6fc4305421de8156d07ad270e737385 PDF Text Text fl;C LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIE~ VOLUME 1 --- NUMBER 6 ~~~;~~·' -~~=~~~ r - \.G, 60 cen. s> �caret A LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW in corpora ting LAKEHEAD UNNERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CARET IS PUBLISHED BY THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO, CANADA. P7B 5E1 EDITOR Dr. G. Harvais Lakehead University ASSOCIATE EDITOR Mr. B. Spenceley CONTENTS Volume 1, Number 6, November 1975 A History of Photography 2 by Dr. A. D. Booth Lakehead University Culture, Politics and Geography: or ..... EDITORIAL BOARD Mr. W. Bilbrough, Lakeview High School, Thunder Bay. 4 by Mr. Robert S. Dilley The Strategy of Concentrated Fire Power 8 by Air Cadet L. Mathemaki (Ret'd) Mr. G. Campbell, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. C. Gehrels, Mathematics and the Arts Student 11 by Dr. C. C. Mutambirwa Ontario Ministry of Education. Mr. W. Lajoie, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. J. Palko, Fort William Collegiate Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. T. Reynolds, Queen Elizabeth High School, Sioux Lookout. Challenges to Fishery Resource Management The Marriage Problem Printing: LU. Printshop Design: LU. Media Services 15 by Professor L. Mathemaki What is Topology? 17 by Dr. S.A. Naimpa/ly Inductive Justification of Induction Typesetting: ARGUS and friends 13 by Professor W. Mo mot 18 by Dr. Gunars Tomsons Photo-degradable Plastics 21 by Dr. N.A. Weir The Compound Microscope 24 by Mr. 8. Spenceley THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN CARET DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE OPINIONS OF THE EDITOR, THE FACULTY OR THE UNIVERSITY. OUR COVER relates to our article "A History of Photography" and depicts Durer's use of the pin-hole camera. �2. AHISTOR OF PH by: Dr. Andrew D. Booth Lakehead University, Thunder Bay A science more than 250 years old The science, as distinct from the art, of photography is now more than 250 years old since the basic experiment on the blackening of silver salts through the action of I ight was conducted by J. H. Schulze in 1725. Schulze did not make a photograph as we now understand it but used a sensitive material which consisted of a mixture of chalk and silver nitrate shaken up with water in a bottle and used wet to record the outline of a stencil placed between the emulsion and the sun. Since the process was essentially a wet one, there are no existing "photograms", to use the modern term, dating from this time. In 1777, C. W. Scheele noticed that silver chloride was more quickly blackened by the violet and blue rays of the spectrum than by the others, and in a sense, this fundamental experiment is the basis of much modern work on photographic emulsion sensitivity and its correction to record the same sort of image as seen by the human eye. In the year 1800, Thomas Wedgwood made contact copies in silhouette form of leaves on leather sensitized with silver nitrate. Again, there was no fixing process used so that the results of these experiments have long since disappeared. The man most usually credited with the invention of photography was Nicephore Niepce who, in 1816, made photographs using a "camera" - that is, a dark chamber with an appropriate lens - to produce photographs on paper sensitized with silver chloride. These photographs were partially fixed using hypo and really constitute the first artistic realization of what we now cal I photography. In the year 1819, Sir John Herschel discovered that thiosulphates removed undeveloped silver halides and thus made the images produced on ·paper by the action of light permanent. This led H in 1826 to the second relevant experiment of Niepce who made a photograph from nature using a lens system and a pewter plate sensitized with bitumen. Niepce's camera of 1826 is interesting in that it contained a bellows for focussing the lens and an iris diaphragm for controlling the amount of light, although the degree of control is debatable since the exposure was eight hours! Recognizable artistic photography started in 1835 when L. J. M. Daguerre made direct photographs on silvered copper plates coated with a silver iodide. The latent image was developed by mercury vapour, a most obnoxious substance, and in 1837, it was found that the result could be fixed using a solution of common salt. Thus, the Daguerreotype was born. The second contender for the honour of invention of artistic photography was W. H. Fox Talbot who, also in 1835, produced photogenic drawings" on paper sensitized with silver chloride and fixed with potassium iodide. Fox Talbot also discovered that prolonged washing with water would dissolve out the undeveloped chloride and thus act as a fixative. The period 1820 to 1840 was one of vigorous scientific activity and readers should recollect the work of Michael Faraday who, between 1828 and 1832, discovered most of the practical applications of electro-magnetism, including the transformer, the motor, and the electric generator. The time was also an active one for microscopists, and in 1839, the Reverend J. B. Reade made the first photomicrographs using a solar microscope to record on paper sensitized with silver nitrate and developed with gallic acid. Fixing was achieved by immersion in sodium thiosul phate. The importance of the photographic process is indicated by the fact that in 1839, the French Government issued working instructions for the creation of Daguerreotypes, and in the same year, Sir John Herschel, son of Sir William mentioned earlier, first coined the word photography" from roots meaning writing with light. 11 11 �3. 1840 is an important date, since in this year, J. Petzval established the basic theory required to compute optical systems of photographic type. The Petzval portrait lens is still in use. In the same year, A. Wolcott opened the first photographic portrait studio in New York City. The Europeans had the art, but the Americans, as usual, made the money I 1844 - first book illustrated photographically 1844 was an important date in the history of photography since it was in that year that Fox Talbot published the first part of "The Pencil of Nature" which was the first book to be illustrated photographically. Copies of this book are still extant, but it is a very rare book, and if a copy ever came up for sale, it would fetch a very large sum of money. The birth of flash photography was not due to Harold Edgerton as is usually thought, but to Fox Talbot who, in 1851, made the first photographs of an object in rapid movement using an electric spark. In the year 1852, the same experimenter showed that gelatin was made insoluble when saturated with sodium biochromate and exposed to light. This led to the first practical process for half-tone printing. 'The technical processes of photography were in a state of rapid change. The Daguerreotype required special preparation for viewing. The later wet processes were messy in application and were replaced finally by dry processes using a transparent negative fol lowed by a positive. It was not until 1871 that R. L. Maddox made the first gelatin dry plates. These were extremely slow, although subsequently improved, both as to speed and to quality. With the coming of the gelatin emulsion, the chemists concentrated on finding reliable methods of development and Sir William Abney, of Photometer fame, discovered the virtues of hydroqwnone in 1880 and was soon followed by H. B. Berkeley who, in 1882, added sodium sulphite to the armoury of photographic developers. 1882 also marks the point of emergence of orthochromatic plates - that is, plates whose sensitivity resembled more that of the human eye than did the original emulsions which, as we mentioned earlier, displayed considerable sensitivity to blue and violet radiation but little to anything else. From this time on, the development of photography was rapid and the inventions came thick and fast. Significant dates are 1888 when the first Kodak roll film camera came on the market, 1891 when the physicist Lippmann produced the first interference colour photographs, and 1906 when Wratten and Wainwright produced the first panchromatic plates - that is, plates sensitive to all col ours. 1914 saw the first Kodak colour photographic process, but the real development of colour photography had to await the work of Mannes and Godowsky in 1935 when the Kodachrome process was developed. 1861 - colour! The last significant date was 1947 when Edwin Land produced the one-step photographic process now known as Polaroid. All of this work was, of course, in black and white or in some of the rather charming sepia and gold tones produced by the replacement of silver by such metals as gold and platinum, but in the year 1861, J. Clerk Maxwell demonstrated the first three-colour separation method for producing coloured images and thereby established the basis of modern colour photography. The work of Maxwel I was fol lowed quite quickly in 1868 by that of Ducos du Hauron who experimented with three-colour photography and discovered various methods of realizing it including that of subtractive colour synthesis. Along with the development of the chemistry of the photographic process, optical systems and cameras received a great deal of attention. The first cameras were simply boxes with a lens in front and a plate behind. Early lenses, which used a very small aperture, did not require focussing, in this respect they did not differ much from the box Brownies of the 1930's and the inexpensive plastic cameras of the present day! Because of the slow emulsions, however, it became necessary to develop lenses which would let in far more light. This led to two interesting scientific kinds of research: the first directed to the elimination �4. of the severe aberrations from which large aperture lenses suffered, and the second to the design of lenses to produce distortion-free images. The only important technical developments of the nineteenth century were the addition of bellows to enable the new and larger aperture lenses to be properly focussed and the introduction first of the Waterhouse diaphragm with its disc of circular stops, and second of the iris diaphragm as a means of controlling the amount of light falling on the film. As films or plates became faster, exposures became much shorter and this, in turn, led to the mechanical development of shutters which would work at high speed and at the same time give reproducible results. Many and various were the designs tried, ranging from pneumatic to spring-driven sets of blades, and of course, roller blind type apparatus, usually driven by springs, which was the prototype of the modern focal plane shutter. miniature, spy cameras The late nineteenth century produced a rash of spy cameras, smal I and unobtrusive devices which were the prototypes of the modern miniature cameras. These were designed to take pictures of one's friends in embarrassing situations, to say nothing of their use by the emerging race of scientific detectives typified by Mr. Sherlock Holmes. The first miniature cameras in the modern sense were the Ermanox used to great effect by the famous photographer, Dr. Salomon and, of course, the Leica, the grandfather of all modern miniature 35 mm. cameras. The explosion of photographic technology of the 1960's and the introduction of electronics, both for light metering and for shutter automation have produced a real revolution in the use of the camera. No longer does the photographer have to have any real skill. What he needs is artistic perception. The automation does the rest. CULTURE, POLITICS AND GEOGRAPHY: or Cymru Am Byth Is A Fine Slogan, But What Does It Mean? by Mr. Robert S. Dilley Lakehead University While there are almost as many definitions of geography as there are geographers, few would deny that one of the most basic concerns of the subject is with distributions: where things are, why they are there, and how they rel ate to other things. Such investigations can take nany forms: the distribution of crop-growing and its relationship with rainfall; the distribution of coal and its relationship with unemployment, and so on. In each case two (or more) phenomena are mapped, and attempts made to measure and explain any similarities in their distributions. For example, consider the relationship between minority cultural traits and minority political parties. In the case of Wales the historic national tongue is Welsh, a Celtic language with no recognizable relationship with English. It is found only in Wales and among a few expatriates, though Welsh-speakers tend to lose their lang1age quickly on emigration. About one-fifth of the population currently speaks Welsh (Map 1 ), tho·Jgh virtually all are bilingual in English (Welsh monoglots account for little over 1% of the t:>tal population). Welsh-speaking is strongest i1 the rural areas of the north and west; lovvest in the industrial south, along the English b0rder and in Pembrokeshire, "little England beyond Wales". Being exclusive to the Welsh it provides a strong focus for national cultural identity; even nonWelsh-speaki ng Welshmen delight in the average Englishman's inability to pronounce place-names such as Pwllheli, Llanllwchaiarn and Llanfihangel yng Ngwynfa. Welsh nationalism as a significant political force is a new phenomenon; after ye1rs of being the butt of jokes about lost deposits the Plaid Cymru (pronounced approximately ,iplide comeree", with the emphasis on "come") attained respectabi Iity when its President, Gwyn for Evans, was elected in a Carmarthen by-election in 1966. Last year's October election was their most successful (Map 2) when they gained 10% of the popular vote and three M.P.s; in Carmarthen (Gwyn for Evans again), Caern uvon and Merioneth. �5. The general relationship between Plaid Cymru and the Welsh language is apparent from the maps (for simplicity, data are grouped by counties: Glamorgan, for example, returns 17 M.P.s; Brecknock and Radnor share one between them). Correlating percentage Welsh-speaking with percentage vote for the Plaid Cymru m a county basis provides a coefficient of + 0.83, significant at the 0.1% level. This is an indication of a very strong positive relationship. Such relationships, of course, must not simply be pulled out of the statistical hat and held up for wonderment. In some cases high correlations may be due to chance; more often to the overriding influence of some third factor on both elements being studied. Before drawing maps or running correlations the researcher must have good reason to expect to find a relationship. In the case of Welsh and Welsh nationalism the connection is clear: the party has made great use of the language as a rallying-point or standard: although only a minority is fluent most Welshmen know at least a few words and have a sentimental attachment to the symbol of their difference from the saesneg (Saxon; i.e. Englishman). Appeals to hwyl (intensely sentimental Welsh emotionalism, seen at its quintessential best just after one of the regular Welsh rugby football defeats of the England side) are, more effective when couched in Welsh. Conversely, non-speakers of Welsh may become irritated by the noisy waving of the linguistic flag, and less inclined therefore to vote for the Plaid Cymru. The relationship, clearly, is not perfect. The percentage vote for the Plaid Cymru at the last election was only half the Welsh-speaking percentage, and it did not fol low the language distribution absolutely. People vote for a variety of reasons, and will not automatically support a party just because it is the only one to espouse their language. Many nationalistic Welsh-speakers on Anglesey voted for the Labour M. P. Cledwyn Hughes, a prominent and much-admired advocate of the Welsh cause. In the heavily Englishspeaking, coal-mining and steel-producing areas of Glamorgan and Monmouth the vote has traditionally been monolithically Labour: in 1966 the area returned 21 Labour M. P s and one Conservative. However, the failure of successive Labour governments to improve the South Wales economy sufficiently has led to a certain amount of protest voting. The rural areas have tended to go Tory (they now have 4 members). The miners would sooner vote for a Martian than a Conservative (at the last election Abertillery voted 76% Labour and Rhondda 77%), but an increasing number feel safe in registering their irritation by giving their vote to Plaid Cymru. Thus the Anglesey vote is rather lower than might be expected; that of the industrial south a little higher. If space permitted these residuals, or differences from the expected figures, could be mapped and more eas i Iy observed. At this level of study only crude approximations can be made. Greater accuracy would be obtained by breaking the counties down into their individual constituencies (smaller division is impossible, as British elections are not declared on a poll-by-poll basis: the ballots are taken to a central location and deliberately mixed before being counted). Similar studies could be made of other areas where linkages of cultural phenomena and political allegiance are suspected. It might be interesting, for example, to compare Francophone areas and votes for the Parti Quebecois. There would not, however, be any point in relating votes for the Scottish Nationalist Party to the Gaelic tongue. Very few Scots speak the language (little over 1%) and they are highly localized in the Western Highlands and Islands. The S. N. P. concentrates more on economic and governmental issues and has wider appeal than the culturallyoriented Plaid Cymru (the S. N. P. polled nearly 30% of the Scottish vote last year, overtaking the Tories). Thus Plaid Cymru sentiment is clearly linked with the Welsh language. It might seem advantageous for the party to foster this link, and to aim to collect the other half of the Welsh-speaking vote. However, this could be risky in the long term, as the Welsh-speaking percentage is shrinking and the Anglophone majority may be repelled. Plaid Cymru votes in largely English-speaking areas such as Pembroke (4.5%), Barry, Glamorgan (3.3%) and Monmouth ( 1.4%) suggest that "Cymru am byth" (Wales for ever) has less meaning there. Studies such as this can at least provide the basis from which political decisions must be made. �MAP 2, 1974 PLAID CYMRU VOTE AS A PERCENTAGE OF THOSE VOTING. MAP I, PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION OVER 3 YEARS OLD ABLE TO SPEAK WELSH. . :::: ~~:.: ::::::=~ CJ ITIIIID Ea [:?\:{{::j CJ 20-29 30-39 ~ - 40-49 ~ 50-59 ~ - 0-4 ,.:::i CJ5-9 60-69 ;;;; E3 V > < 1 10-14 15-19 -£%1 20- 24 mm 25-29 ................... 30-34 ;;;; 8i~ ✓ - Source, Census of Britain, 1971. Source 0 The Times, 12 October 1974 °' �7 MAP 3, COUNTIES OF WALES �8. THE ST TE y F by: Air Cadet L. Mathemaki (Ret'd) Director of the Div is ion of Theoretical War fa re 1: INTRODUCTION. With the increasing mathematization of the social and natural sciences, most math teachers find they must drastically modify and update their course contents, in order to maintain at least a semblance of relevance. Gone are the days when students would be content with only physical and geometrical applications of the calculus, for examplel Now most high school calculus courses must contain applications to economics, biology, sociology and psychology, even if they are of an extremely idealized nature. Thus, the following very simple application of calculus to warfare might appeal to a good student, although it may be difficult to persuade him/her that it is really of practical value. At the very least, the main result is both easy to obtain and completely unexpected two good qualities rarely occurring together! 2: A SHORT HISTORY OF WARFARE. We deal with battles between two opposing forces. , Battles in primitive times probably consisted of a lot of individual hand-to-hand fights; the essential point for us is that the weapons fists, clubs, spears - were not long range weapons: it was impossible to concentrate the power of many soldiers on one opponent. Thus if, for example, we had two such armies, one with 100 men and one with 200, we would expect - if the soldiers are equally profficient that the result would be annihilation of the first army and 100 survivors from the second. The battle could simply be fought by letting half the second army act as spectators, while everyone else is killed. Nowadays things are different and undoubtedly much improved. Long range weapons enable armies to concentrate their fire power and, as we shall see, this can lead to unexpected advantages. There are some pretty obvious ~xamples: perhaps the battle of Agincourt was the most spectacular - the long range weapons of the English (bows and arrows) annihilated the the larger French army, whose weapons were short range. E T TE Fl E P Nearer our own time, the use of field artillery in the Russo-Japanese war, and now, the anticipated use of inter-continental ballistic missiles, indicate how far we have come from clubs and swords. Interested history students might profitably analyse some modern battles using the concepts we will now introduce. ' 3: A MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR MODERN WARFARE. We consider two opposing forces, the red and the blue armies, of sizes r(t}, b(t), respectively, at any time t. We will measure time from the beginning of the battle, so r(0), b(O) are the initial sizes of the armies. Of course, we could measure the sizes, not in terms of soldiers, but in terms of battalion, ships, etc., whatever is convenient. We assume that each soldier (battalion, ship) in the red army is equally effective in warfare, and that he can concentrate his fire power in any way, so that, throughout the battle he kills R blue soldiers every minute. Similarly, each blue soldier kills B red soldiers every minute; R and B are fixed numbers. Consider what happens in a short time interval from t to t+h minutes during the battle. The number of red soldiers killed is, by the definition of r, -(r(t+h)-r(t) ). On the other hand, if the time interval is short, the size of the blue army hasn't changed much in this time, and thus is approximately b(t) its size at the beginning - so the number of red soldiers killed is b (t) • B • h by the definition of the kill rate B. Thus, for values of h near 0, r(t + h) -- r(t) % -b(t) . 8 . h so r(t+h)-r(t) % -b(t) . B h Since this approximation improves as h approaches 0, we have ER �9. dr dt= -b. B (Calculus!) Similarly, db = -r• R dt and so, after a bit of algebra b • B • db = r • R • dr dt dt If we integrate both sides with respect to time, we get the unexpected result: 'b2 B - r2 R is independant of time Let us2 cal I b 2 B the strength of the blue army and r . R the strength of the red army. We have shown that tne difference in strength is conI stant throughout the the battle. Examples : 1. Consider a battle between 10 machine gunners (the red army) and 100 infantrymen (the blue army), and assume the kill rate of the machine gunners is 16 times that of the infantrymen. Let us measure time so the rates are 16 and 1. Initially, the , strengths are: machine gunners= 16. 10 2 = 1600 infantrymen = 1 • ( 100 ) 7 = 10000 and so, at any time, b(t) 2 16r(t) 2 = 10,000 - 1,600 = 8,400 The battle will end when one side is vanquished - when b(t) or r(t) is 0. Clearly, b(t) will never be 0: b(t) 7 = 8,400 + 16r(t) 2 so, at the end, r(t) = 0 and b(t) =J8,400 = 91. Only nine infantrymen have been killed, and all 10 of the machine gunners die in spite of the fact that they are, individualy, 16 times more effective in killing! A rather surprising result. 2. The above example was rather an uneven contest - the machine gunners were quite overwhelmed. Let's consider a more equal match: 10 machine gunners against 60 infant- rymen. The infantry is the stronger, by 2000, so a battle would result in it winning, with 45 infantrymen left. But suppose the machine gunners use a bit of strategy, and manage to break the battle into a series of battles, in each one of which they all atack 20 infantrymen. The results are: (i) 10 mgs vs 20 inf. : 8 mgs survive (ii) 8 mgs vs 20 inf. : 3 mgs survive (iii) 6 mgs vs 20 inf. : 3 mgs survive The machine gunners have won! Thus we see that a bit of strategy can win against what, at first glance, appears to be overwhelming force. Of course, the enemy general has to be rather stupid to allow his army tn be picked off ·piecemeal, but this is what often occurs in practice. A small force is sent to divert a larger part of the enemy; their job is simply to pin down a lot of soldiers while their comrades defeat the small remainder. Then they keep regrouping until they win. A naval battle, during the days of sailing ships, would be a good example of this - in that no diversionary force is needed if the wind is right - the attacking admiral hits his opponents part way down the line and lets the wind carry off a portion of the enemy fleet. By the time it has been turned around to re-enter the fight, the next phase has started. Nelson used this ploy at Trafalgar; this has been analysed by Lankester in his classic paper [3]. We will give a slightly different interpretation. 4: THE BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR RERUN. Up to 1782, there was no 'naval strategy' - it was 'line up, and attack ship-to-ship'. But in 1782 the British admiral Rodney, probably by accident, broke through the enemy line and by concentrating on his centre and rear, won a victory. This prepared the military mind for Nelson's strategy at Trafalgar. It was known that Nelson would favour Rodney's strategy; the French admiral, Villeneuve, stated before the battle that "the British fleet will not be formed in a line-of-battle parallel to the combined (ie. the French and Spanish) fleet according to the usage of former days. Nelson will seek to break our line, envelop our rear, and overpower with groups of his ships as many as he can isolate and cut off. Why the French and Spanish admirals let Nelson dictate the strategy is a matter for military historians; the answer may lie in the fact that the French believed their �10. reverses at sea were due to the introduction of tactics, which one of their admirals had castigated as a "veil of timidity". Also, due to the British blockade, the French sailors at that time were so untrained they couldn't manoeuvre their ships - but they were more accurate at gunnery, so long-range warfare should have been congenial for them. At any rate, Nelson and his aides, Collingwood and Keats, planned the battle as follows: They assumed they would have 40 ships, and the enemy would have 46. The British fleet was to attack in 3 columns, as below. \ \\ wind . . . _ ,_ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _. . . ,_ _ _ _ 12 12 4 In fact, these tactics part of Nelson's fleet •convoy to Malta, and formed two lines; the great detai I in [ 1] . --►.,.,. 18 Combined fleet Assuming the wind carried the 18 ships out of the battle, and that it broke into 3 separate battles: 16 British vs 12 Combined 16 British vs 12 Combined 8 British vs 4 Combined, resulting in 27 British ships surviving, and then the final battle of 27 British against 18 Combined, the net result is that 20 British ships are left. If the usual 'line of battle' attack had been used, the combined fleet would have won, with 20 ships, and most of us would speak French. • were changed because had to accompany a in the battle he only battle is described in 5: MORE APPLICATIONS. It would be interesting to apply these ideas to modern battles, to see if the military strategists could have been using - perhaps in an intuitive way - the quantitative results we can get. A 'dictionary of battles' - there are quite a few in print, and they should be available in the reference section of most school libraries - is all that would be needed. There may be applications to other situations to; polymer chemistry and molecular biology might contain intersting applications. Also, the mathematics of the situation has not, to my knowledge, really been investigated. The Iength of battle can be found; the answer involves the hyperbolic functions. The strength of an army consisting of several different types of weapons is certainly not that given in [3] , and appears to depend on the opposition, but I have not found even an approximate explicit form for it. What is the size of an overwhelming force?, one that will win no matter what strategy is used. How can we find a best strategy? Other mathematical problems may suggest themselves; I would be glad to hear of them. REFERENCES: 1. Major General J. F. C. Fuller; The Decisive Battles of the Western World, Vol. 2, a Paladin paperback. 2. Major General B. P. Hughes, Firepower. Weapon Effectiveness on the battlefield 1630-1850, Arms and Armour Press. 3. F. W. Lancaster; Mathematic5, in Warfare; The World of Mathematics, Vol 4, Simon and Schuster. Synonyms Glycerol and gylcerine are used for the same compound which is a trihydric alcohol. Hence the former spelling with an -ol ending is preferred. Glycine is an amino acid (also known as aminoacetic acid) while glycinol (also called 2-aminoethanol, ethanolamine, monoethanolamine) lacks the carboxylic group. Xylene and xylol are also used synonymously but the compound is not an alcohol but a homologue of benzene. The first spelling is preferred. Glycol: common name given to ethylene glycol. t �11. ATHE Tl S by: Dr. C. C. Mutambirwa lakehead University The mathematical needs of t 1e Arts student have increased very much in recent years. This is particularly so for the student intending to major in any one or more of the social sciences, namely, Anthropology, Economics, Geography, Political Science, Psychology and Sociology. Unfortunately a large number of such students still enter college or university with limited mathematical preparation at the high school level. Most Arts-bound students drop out of the high school mathematics program because of real or imagined fears of mathematics as a hard subject. Others drop out because of the misconceptions (also held by several teachers) that high school mathematics is not essential to the Arts major. The lack of a significant change in this state of affairs seems to lie in the pure Science bias contained in most high school mathematics curricula which have failed to include explicitly material suitable for the needs of the Social 'Scientist. Lately, however, the growing importance of mathematics to the social sciences is being recognized. The Secondary Schools Statistics Project which was launched just over two years ago at the University of Western Ontario is one evidence of this recognition. Since then high school mathematics teachers have held related seminars designed to revise the high school curriculum (especially the statistics program) accordingly. The growing importance of mathematics to the social sciences has been demonstrated by the results arising from the study under the auspices of the project noted above. (See MacNeil, 1975, "The Social Scientists' View Of High School Mathematics", in Ontario Mathematics Gazette Vol. 13, No. 3, pp167-186). Using questionnaires, a poll (80% response) of social scientists in Ontario Universities was conducted to determine their opinions on mathematics curricula. Three sets of questions were asked. The first set asked the social scientists to indicate the value of eleven major mathematics topics to their undergraduate programs. The second set asked for the antici- T E TS ST E T pated future mathematical needs of the social sciences. The third requested them to rate the importance of various statistics and probability topks to the social sciences programs. The results of the statistical analyses of responses to the above sets of questions show that: I. Statistics, probabi I ity and the basic concepts of algebra are very useful to the secondary school mathematics program and hence also to the university social science programs. (Table 1 refers). 2. The relatively recent and modern aspects of the mathematics curriculum, which include computer science, probability, statistics and matrix algebra, will be of increasing importance to the social sciences. (see Table 2). 3. Data tabulation methods, measures of central tendency and of disperson should be part of the high school statistics course. In addition the high school student should be introduced to the elementary concepts on probability theory (probability measures, mathematical expectation, etc.), statistical inference, simple correlation and regression analysis, common experimental designs and associated analysis of variance, and some nonparametric tests. At the request of the survey some general comments concerning the secondary school mathematics program in particular, were appended to the questionnaires by the social scientists. The majority of the comments expressed the opinion that greater preparation of secondary school students in basic mathematics is very necessary and mathematics should be mandatory for all students. However, there are some reservations about the type and depth of statistics to be taught at high school level. It was generally felt that only the elementary topics in statistics could be taught with the intention of showing the secondary school student that statistics inter alia, is an integral part of most social science programs. Complete and detailed statistics courses could be left to the colleges and universities by which time the relevance of statistics to the social sciences becomes clearer and the subject can be easily integrated into a specific social science major. �12. Mathematics and statistics have become part and parcel of most social science programs. Several recent publications in the social sciences clearly show this to be the case. The growth of a scientific methodology in the social sciences, the development of computer technology and the magnitude and complexity of the real-world problems have all led to the adoption of quantitative approaches to problem solving. These developments require substantial mathematical skills in the arts student, just as much as the pure science student must develop some skills in the social sciences if his or her scientific endeavours are to have any relevance to the more immediate problems of the real world. ...., Scale: 1 of no use 2 of limited use 3 a useful topic 4 very useful 5 indispensible TOPIC Nn V) V) u ·e0 C: >, '; C. l'CS OQ.I •r-U 0) •r-Q.I .c: s.. 0 0 I.LI (.!J u Q.I ....,c: ,--,OU 0..V') ~ 0 0 .c: u >, V) a.. ol:S >, 0) 0 >,.0) 0 0 C. ,- 0 0 s.. •,-.C: 0...., 0 C: U') c:( TOPIC MATHEMATICS TOPIC NO. 0. "'s.. ,7l ,~ 0 c:,, '; u Q) ·~ +> Cu ..-Q) 2:~ ~ 0 '.g u !!' >, 0 os.. u 5.5l s - Q) C } ~ .... '= 1 Algebra. Bas 1c Concepts 0.455 0.500 0.300 0.133 2 Set theory. Basic concepts. 0.364 0.417 3 Euc 1 i dean geometry. -0.182 0.167 4 Analytic geometry. -0.100 0.000 0.111 5 Trigonometry -0.091 0.091 6 Differential & integra 1 cal cul us. 0.636 0.300 0.200 0.667 0.441 7 Matrix .algebra 0.636 0.500 0.667 0.750 0.661 8 Statistics 0.455 0.833 0.800 0.600 0.667 0.667 0.333 0.350 0.429 0.364 0.373 0.000 0.214 -0.091 0.070 0.000 0.000 0.035 0.100 0.143 0.000 0.052 0.273 Probability. 0.364 0.909 0.600 0.688 0.750 0.667 10 Computer progralTllli ng. 0.364 0.750 0.700 0.813 0.833 0.705 11 Actuaria 1 mathematics. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.083 9 -0.300 0.143 C: Q.I .p s.. l'CS 0 C. Q.I Q.I C: -0.,.. ..0 .- E ,- 0 c:( 0 MATHEMATICS TOPICS 1 Algebra. Basic concepts 2 Set theory. concepts. 3 Euclidean geometry 3.09 B.50 1.36 2.19 l.92 ~.37 4 Analytic geometry. 2. 91 2.92 1.45 2.25 2.42 2.40 5 Trigonometry. 6 Differential & 3.55 3.00 2 .18 2.56 2.58 g.]6 integral calculus. 7 Matrix algebra. 3.64 3.54 2.55 2.60 3.08 3.07 8 Statistics. 3.82 4.00 4.09 4.13 4.08 9 Probabi 1i ty 3.55 3.85 3.73 3.88 3.75 3.76 Table 2 Average responee to predicted future importance of mathematics topics for soaiaZ sdence diadptines. Ian B. MacNeil. 1975, "The Social Scientist's View of High School Mathematics", Ontario Mathematics Gazetter, Vol. 13, No. 3. p. 18 . 4.27 4.38 2.73 4.00 3.92 3.89 Basic 3.45 l3.46 2.55 3.13 3.00 (3.13 2.20 l3.45 1.18 l.94 l.92 2.15 L03 10 Computer program- 3.00 t3.54 3.00 3.25 3.50 B.27 ming. 11 Actuarial mathematics. 2.09 h .64 1.50 l.81 1.92 1.80 TABLE l Average response to importance of mathematias for soaial saience disaiplines. Source: "'u ~s:::: Ian B. MacNeil, 1975, "The Social Scientist's View of High School Mathematics", Ontario Mathematics Gazetter, Vol. 1 3 ~ , p.180. SOLUTION TO PREVIOUS PUZZLE: FLIERS, STINGERS AND BITERS �13. CHALLENGES TO FISHERY RESOURCE by: Professor W. Momot Lakehead University Although fisheries management has existed as a discrete discipline for only 40 years, there has been a greater impact on our fishery resources during this short time than in the past six thousand years of recorded history. While the burgeoning populations of the third world depend increasingly on fish as a source of protein, the fish supply is decreasing. The annual world fish catch has failed to increase for the second time since World War 11. Latest figures gathered by the F AO, the food and agricultural organization of the United Nations, show that the world catch of all species for 1972 was 65.6 million metric tons, down 4.1 million tons from the previous year. The need for protein has led to fierce international competition for the ocean's fishery resources. Many traditional fishing grounds are harvested so intensively that some of our most important commercial species have been thoroughly over-exploited. Much of the declining fish catch in the United States and Canada can be directly traced to increased competition from foreign fleets. This has occurred in the haddock fisheries of the north Atlantic. Despite establishment of the International Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries, which deals with the problems created when several nations exploit a common resource in international waters, satisfactory regulatory action has not been attained. As traditional fisheries decline the fishing nations of the world turn to other resources, and the same pattern of over-exploitation is repeated again and again. Even such oceanic fisheries as that for the Pacific salmons, Pacific halibut, and tropical tunas, which have yielded substantial catches over the past few decades, are being placed under more and more pressure. Another facet of this intense competition is the attempt by some coastal nations to limit access to their offshore resources by extending their coastal jurisdiction to the edge of the continental shelf or to some other fixed point usually given as 200 miles offshore or 200 meters in depth. This is true not only of underdeveloped countries but also of traditional fishing nations such as Iceland, whose entire ANAGE ENT economy is dependent on its offshore cod fishery. Canada has also threatened similar action. Several international incidents have been directly tied to the problem of sharing a fisheries resource or to disputes over conflicting uses of a resource within a given area, for example, the conflict between United States lobster fishermen and Russian trawlers off the New England coast. In a few cases a fishery is regulated by treaty. This is true for the Pacific salmon which is shared by the United States, Canada and Japan. However, si nee the treaty only governs these three nations, what happens when other countries not regulated by any agreements attempt to share this resource? The problems resulting from international conflicts over marine fish resources are among the most challenging and complex we can define for the renewable resource manager. Because of their need for protein, aquaculture of food fishes constitutes an important resource for the underdeveloped nations of the world. However, many of these countries already have an extensive development of these resources. As poorly developed nations attempt to raise their standard of living, they will put greater and greater demands on protein sources such as grain crops, fish meal and even beef cattle. Thus, they will come into direct competition with more affluent countries. For European nations which depend on imports of meat or high protein feeds to raise beef or dairy cattle such competition will become a serious problem. Though Canada and the United States produce enough food for their own use, how can they morally disregard the needs of four-fifths of humanity? In addition, they are caught up in the international balance-ofpayments problem and numerous treaty obi igations. Thus, the fisheries resources of the world remain unalterably tied to questions of moral, political, and social values. An even greater problem facing freshwater and coastal estuarine resources is the continuous degradation of the environment and the concomittant changes in the fish populations. Although we do not directly consider the well documented problem of pollution and its effects on aquatic organisms, it is certainly important in many of our fisheries. It has had a direct bearing on the development of certain �14. fisheries resources such as the Great Lakes fisheries, notably in Lakes Ontario and Erie. However certain fisheries in the upper Great Lakes have also been affected. In view of these serious problems, the need for recreation may seem of diminished importance. Yet it continues to dominate the inland freshwater fisheries of the affluent western world. In island waters, sport and commercial fisheries are often in direct competition for a common resource and even when they compete for different resources within a commonly shared area, conflicts are just as serious. The Great Lakes fisheries constitute an outstanding example of this sort of conflict. Regulation of these fisheries is made even more complex since jurisdiction is both international and interstate. Inland sport fisheries are also faced with a myriad of other problems. The development of an _indu~trialized, urban society with a seemingly insatiable demand for recreational space has created a paradoxical situation; the masses of modern man are densely concentrated while the resources are usually located at great distances from these population centres. However, with improvements in transportation and the general affluence of the public even once remote resource bases are hard put to produce satisfactory recreational experiences. Fishery managers are thus faced with the task of providing satisfactory. yields and dealing with the incremental and continuous degradation of existing resources. Certain resources such as streams continue to be degraded at a rate, which if continued, will soon make them a rarity as a fishery resource. The construction of impoundments have created new fishery resources, yet their management remains quite primitive. Of immediate concern is the loss of existing fishable waters near urban centers. The increasing demand for such waters continues to tax the most imaginative and creative minds in the field of fisheries administration. Finally, where demand is greater than supply, certain special interst groups usually bring pressure on administrators to propose legislation favouring their use of the resource. This tends to exclude the less organized, more general sportsman. Attempts to restrict both the harvest and the use of a resource to special interest groups continues to be one of the most challenging problems in sport fishery management. Coastal marine fisheries are faced with many of the same problems as inland freshwater fisheries. In addition to the pollution of the environment, there is an increasing demand for salt water based recreation plus conflicts over the commercial and/or sport use of many marine fish and shellfish. Thus, the cha I lenges facing the fishery manager are as complex, formidable and numerous as any in the field of renewable natural resources. They include the major problems confronting man today: over-population of the third world, the stark reality of protein starvation for four-fifths of humanity, insidious and incremental destruction of the world's natural resources at a time of resource scarcity, increasing competition between wealthy and developing nations for the resources that remain and the psychological impact of coping with a technological world at a time when the safety valve provided by outdoor space is vanishing or being altered. Even though advances in science and technology have been the cause of many of these problems, they can also be used to formulate effective solutions. However, the proper application of these solutions will also depend on the social and political wisdom of mankind. We are on the verge of spectacular breakthroughs in the field of ecosystem manage- ment, but man's greatest achievement will be in finding the social and political answers to make the "wise" use of his renewable natural resources a reality for succeeding generations. I. and 11/11/75 �15. TH RI by L. Mathemaki, Professor of Mathematical Marriage Counselling Most mathematics has its roots in very practical problems and, for most of us, one very practical problem we have all encountered ·- and some of us have solved - is: "how many acquaintances must one have in order to get married without undue competition?". I will pose this problem in a typical idealized way: we will consider a set B of boys, and set G of girls; each boy wishes to marry an acquaintance from G; perhaps a boy will not know all the girls in G. Bigamy will not be allowed, and we wish to attain the typical male-chauvinist goal that all the boys get married, without regard for left-over girls. Let's consider an example: we have four boys, improbably named I, 2, 3, and 4. Each boy knows some girls, any one of whom he would not mind marrying. Let us call the girls A, B, C, D, and suppose the acquaintances are Boy 1 2 3 4 His acquaintances A A,B B,C A,C,D, If all the boys are to be married, 1 must marry A, so 2 must marry B, 3 must marry C, and 4 must marry D. In this case, all the boys can get married, and in fact there is only one possible way they can pair off. Another example: suppose the 'acquaintance table' is: Boy His acquaintances 1 2 3 4 A,B A,B A,B A,B,C,D, In this case marriage is impossible: the boys I, 2, 3, only have two girls to choose from. Thus we see that sometimes marriage is possible and sometimes it isn't. The marriage problem is simply to determine conditions which will guarantee the possibility of marriage. To solve the problem, let's return to the general situation - the two sets B,G - and suppose all the boys can be married off. Consider any set C of boys from B (that is, consider any subset C of B) and denote by F (C) the set of those girls from G each of whom knows a boy in C. For instance, in our first example we have F(3) = (B,C); F(1,2) = (A,B), F(2,3,4) = (A,B,C,D,), and so on. We have assumed ail the boys can be married off; thus no matter what C is, F (C) must contain the (potential) wives of the boys in C, and since different boys have different wives (the nobigamy condition), there are at least as many girls in F(C) as there are boys in C. So we have the assertion: if marriage is possible then, for each C ~ B, F(C) contains at least as many elements as C. THE SURPRISING THING IS: the converse of our assertion is also true. Given any sets B,G of boys and girls, if F(C) contains at least as many girls as there are boys in C, for every Cs 3, then al I the boys can be married off. The proof of this is very tricky indeed - it proceeds by induction on the number of boys in B. It would be a worthwhile problem for a good grade 13 student to attempt; at least it illustrates that induction is not just a turn-the-crank method involving the summation of finite series! Of course, such a proof only works for a finite number of boys, so it then is natural to ask: what happens if B contains an infinite number of boys? Consider an example: ca I the boys 1,2,3,4, .... the girls 1*,2*,3*,4*, .... and suppose the acquaintances are: 1. knows all the girls 2. only knows 1 * 3. only knows 2* 4. only knows 3* and, generally, if n > 1, n only knows (n-1) *. Every set C of boys knows as many girls as there are boys in C; in fact, if 1 is in C, then F(C) contains all the girls. But marriage is impossible - 2 must marry 1*, 3 must marry 2*, . . . leaving no one for that extremely popular boy 1. �16. Thus the condition that worked for the finite situation won't work in this case; the next step would be to get some compromise. It turns out that if the condition holds, and each boy only knows a finite number of girls, then marriage is possible. The proof of this seems to require some very profound mathematics indeed; it was first proved in 1949, and subsequent generalizations now constitute a fairly substantial body of knowledge "the theory of transverals and representative sets". TWO MORE PROBLEMS: (1) The problem of the monks: this was first posed by Balzac. We have two sets, a set M of monks, and a set A of non-monks; each monk has acquaintances in A, and he wishes to establish a 'harem' consisting of his acquaintances, of a particular size, and disjoint from the other harems. Under what conditions can he do this? It turns out that this is just a disguised marriage problem: replace each monk by as many boys as he wants members in his harem, and seek conventional marriages. (2) The friendship problem: this appears unrelated to the marriage problem We consider a party at which each pair of persons has a common acquaintance (including the possibility that a pair know each other). Then, someone at that party knows everyone! The only proof I know of is pretty complicated - in fact, it turns the problem into a problem in a peculiar geometry. Can anyone furnish a nice neat elementary proof? True or False? Carotid: one of the two great arteries that carry blood to the head. The name is derived from karoo (= stupefy), compression of the carotid arteries being thought to produce stupefication. Carotene: one of the carotenoid pigments common in plants (and particularily abundant in carrots). True or False? Ammeter: a current-measuring device. Most modern ammeters are of the moving coil type developed during the 19th century. The current to be measured is passed through a rectangular coi I of many turns of wire pivoted between two jewelled bearings in a magnetic field. The interaction between the current and the magnetic field exerts a torque which turns the coil against a spring. The angle through which the coil rotates is then a measure of the current in the wire. The sensitivity of the instrument is set by the strength of the magnetic field, the construction of the coi I (size of wire, number of turns and area of coil) and by the strength of the restoring spring. An external circuit can easily be used to reduce the sensitivity of a meter as can be seen in the diagram:- In this circuit, only the fraction R ( R + r) of the current I, flows through the ammeter, A. No external circuit, however, can be used to increase the sensitivity. Carob: leguminous evergreen Mediterranian tree (and its pod and seeds). The large red pods have been used for food for animal and man since prehistoric times. It is believed that it may have been the "locust" eaten by John the Baptist in the wilderness. The seeds are reputed to be extremely uniform in size and weight and to have been used as weight standards. They are believed to be the origin of the carat which is now the measure of weight for precious metals and jewels. �17. HAT IS TOPO OGY? by:S. A. Naimpally, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. As with any subject it is quite difficult to give a precise definition of Topology. Topology means different things to different people but broadly speaking it deals with continuity. The terms continuous, continuity etc. are used often in day-to-day language, and the purpose of this little article is to explain how they are made precise in Mathematics. Mathematicians have been struggling for centuries to give a precise meaning of continuity, and although a satisfactory definition was given in the middle of the nineteenth century by Weierstrass and Heine, a very simple approach was first suggested by the great Hungarian mathematician F. Riesz in 1908. We will use Riesz's approach via the concept of nearness which is one of the most important concepts in the whole of mathematics. The beauty of nearness is that it is simultaneously simple and rigorous. Let us take a simple example. Suppose Paul is a friend of the Russel family. If Paul continues to be a friend, then we say that the friendship is smooth or continuous. If there is a quarrel between Paul and the Russels, we say that the friendship is broken or discontinuous. It is easy to think of many such examples, but rather than do that, we will pursue only a few and arrive at a precise definition of continuity. The statement "Paul is a friend of the Russels" can be simply explained by "Paul is near the Russel family". Here nearness is an abstraction of friendship but it could also represent many other relations. For instance, a phrase which we frequently use in day-to-day language, we may say that "Paul is near the Russel family" provided that Paul lives in their neighbourhood, or Paul is related to the Russel family (Perhaps as an uncle or grandfather). Thus we have the concept of nearness between ' • a person and a family. A question naturally arises as to what properties this nearness relation satisfies? Some of the obvious ones are (i) each member of the Russel family is near the Russel family (we are, of course, considering an ideal family which has no delinquents!), {ii) No person can be near a non-existent family, etc. However, a subtle difference exists between these day-today examples and the mathematical concept of nearness. Whereas it is possible in life for a person to be neither near nor far (opposite of near), we require our mathematical concept to avoid this possibility. As time passes we all change or we are all transformed. If a person who is near a family remains near we say that this transformation is continuous and, in the contrary case, we say that it is discontinuous. This idea is very basic and is at the root of the concept of limit in Calculus. In Topology one considers "higher" types of nearness too. For example we may say that the Russel family is near the Hardy family, if as it happens so frequently, they are introduced to each other by a common friend or a girl from one family marries a boy from another. This nearness between two families is called proximity, and interestingly enough, even in Mathematics the two most important proximities arise in completely analogous ways. One then considers proximal continuity which is concerned with the preservation of proximity. Finally we have the concept of nearness for several families. For example, several families may be near because they have a common ancestor or they have a common cause and get together for a picnic. Although these ideas are simple, they are at the basis of Calculus, Analysis and a big chunk of Modern Mathematics. They have found applications in Mathematical Biology, Psychology, Econometrics, Physiology of the Brain etc. For further details and references, the interested readers are referred to the following: (1) S.A. Naimpally and 8.0. Warrack, Proximity Spaces, Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics No. 59, Cambridge University Press, U.K. (1970). (2) S.A. Naimpally, Proximity Approach to General Topology, Lecture Notes, Lakehead University (1973). (3) P. Cameron, J.G. Hocking and S.A. Naimpally, NEARNESS; a better approach to continuity and limits, Lecture Notes, Lakehead University (1973). �18. IN UCTIVE JUSTIFICATI N bv: Gunars Tomsons Lakehead University The analysis of scientific reasoning by many able investigators has resulted in the acknowledgement of induction as being a legitimate and indispensable process of framing general hypotheses. This process, according to the analysis consists of formulating a general hypothesis on the basis of observed instances. Thus from the observed mortality of humans one infers the the mortality of any member of any mankind. Since the future seems so open and uncertain, and since a radical change in the constitution of the universe cannot be excluded BS a possibility, it has been thought at times that a justification is needed for a procedure of science that purports to produce hypotheses and laws of nature on the basis of the limited evidence of the senses. One sort of justification that has appeared to be the most promising method of justifying induction is the so-called inductive justification of induction. According to this method one is justified in using induction because observed instances of inductive reasoning have turned out to be reliable. There is certainly some attractiveness in a proposal to justify induction on empirical grounds. It seems that if we can make what we think to be legitimate inferences based on past experiences when we deal with the objects of science, then we should be able to learn from past experiences and make legitimate generalizations even when the objects have a different nature, i.e., when the objects are inductive arguments. However, at first sight there appear to be also good reasons against an inductive justification of induction, especially if we formulate the problem in terms of inductive rules. The justification of induction is then seen as a justification of a rule that permits generalization. Hence, if we want to justify our use of the rule ·through inductive procedures, we seem to be using in our justification a rule the general use of which we are trying to justify. There seems to be something illogical about a procedure of this sort. Nevertheless, Max Black, a present day philosopher interested in inductive logic has argued that inductive justification of induction is possible. 1 Hence I want to present the model for inductive justification F INDU TION of induction and Black's reasons for his position. I shall then show that Black's position is not tenable. Black conceives of the inductive justification of induction in terms of a justification of the inductive rule governing one type of inductive argument. The rule whose justification he seeks is the rule permitting the following argument: Most of the examined A's have been B's, 1 The next A will be B. Observation of the repeated application of the rule r 1, prompts us, according to Black, to produce an argument of the following form: r has usually been successful. , r will be successful in the next instance. 1 An argument. of this sort is called a selfsupporting argument, because the rule r 1, is used in the argument to establish that the next instance of the use of the rule will be successful. The meaning of 'the next instance' in the conclusion has not been made explicit, but Black's examples indicate that by 'the next instance' he means the use of the rule in a non-self- supporting argument. Arguments of the above kind have at times been called second-level arguments, because they refer to arguments whose referents are found in the non-linguistic world. One could, of course, construct second- or third-level arguments; but in the case under consideration we have been presented with only a second-level argument. One may not assume, though, that the rules used in second-level arguments must differ from the first-level arguments merely in virtue of the fact that second-level arguments try to establish facts about the first-level arguments. Moreover, I think that it would be absurd to claim that the inductive r 1 differs in character depending on whether it is employed in firstor second-level arguments. Arguments of the self-supporting kind have been criticized on the grounds that they are circular, i.e., that their premises contain the conclusion, if only as a presupposition or a suppressed premise. Black has provided us with a seemingly decisive argument against the view that these arguments have a suppressed premise asserting the general reliability of the rule r 1 7- �19. He has argued that the argument could no1 have a suppressed premise of this kind because by repeating the conclusion in the premises we no longer have an inductive argument. We have a technically sound argument which is of no use to us because it is circular. But only deductive arguments can be circular. Hence, according to Black, an attack of this sort on the inductive justification of induction cannot but fail. This appears to be a victory over those who allege that inductive justification of induction is circular in the logico-technical sense. However, I am not quite convinced. The attack by Black succeeds only if his opponent is willing to grant that the argument is in fact inductive. But need he grant this? It seems to me that Black's opponent could say that the justification of induction fails because the argument is circular and hence also deductive. On this view, Black only believes that he has provided an inductive argument, whereas in fact he had the suppressed premise that enumerative induction is effective. In other words, he has assumed that which he wants to prove inductively. And if one wants to prove what he assumes to be true in the premises, he has a circular argument whether he intends to use deductive or inductive procedures for proving whatever he intends to prove. From the point of justification of a belief that rests on an inference it certain! y is presupposed that the belief is wel I supported, and in order for a belief to be well supported we must have a reliable rule of inference as wel I as good evidence. Thus the rel iabi I ity of the rule is presupposed. It is true, I think, that we may not be conscious of the belief that our rule is reliable. However, from the point of view of justification of beliefs we have to take into account beliefs that we are not aware of in our day-to-day arguments, if they are relevant to our epistemological order of beliefs. I conclude that Black has not succeeded in showing that the inductive justification of induction is not circular, and I have already indicated that one has good reasons for claiming that it is circular. Black has argued that self-supporting arguments are not circular also on the grounds that the argument succeeds in raising the reliability of the rule. I want to show, nevertheless, that this argument is equally unsuccessful, and I will first reproduce Black's example of a self-supporting argument: (a) In most instances of the use of R in arguments with true premises examined in a wide variety of conditions, R has been successful Hence (probably): In the next instance to be encountered of the use of R in an argument with a 3 true premise, R will be successful. 'R' stands for the following rule: To argue from "most instances of A's examined in a wide variety of conditions have been B" to (probably) 77he next A to be encountered will be 8" Black contends that the argument (a) supports rule R by raising the reliability of the rule and hence the subsequent first-level arguments using the rule. The situation can be presented in the following schematic way using these abbreviations: 'a' will represent first-level inductive arguments before the use of the self-supporting argument. 'A' will represent supporting argument the self- 'b' will represent a first-level argument after the use of the self-supporting argument 'A' 'r ' is the inductive rule used in a arguments a 'rb' is the same argument b rule used in 'r ' is the rule used in the sefr-supporting argument The sequence below represents the temporal order of the arguments and the abbreviated argument A is presented directly below the sequence: �20. a1, a2, a3 , ............ ,an, A,b r a was successful A: ------------r A r b will be successful According to Black argument A establishes that is more reliable than r , but I do not see tRat this has to be the ca;e, since we do not know much about the reliability of r A. Black has no reason to assume that his second-level induction will perform as expected since in proving the conclusion we have assumed that r A will perform satisfactorily; we certainly have no inductive evidence in support of the reliability of r A. Some arguments are in order also with respect to Black's concept of the degree of reliability of the rule. Black conceives of the strengthening of rules and arguments as follows: r successes differs from rule to rule. But why should an inductive rule increase or decrease in reliability depending on the ratio of past successes? Our confidence may perhaps increase if we see the rule succeed, but to say that our confidence is increasing is not to say that the reliability of the rule is increased. I conclude that Black's attempts to provide inductive justification of induction have not succeeded. Moreover, I have supplied reasons which show that inductive justification of induction is implausible. 1. Let us assume that the following argument b using the rule r has the strength 4/5 or 8/10: Argument b 4/5 of examined A's are B's Next A will be B Given appropriate observational evidence we can construct a self-supporting argument: Argument A 9/10 of examined arguments using rule r were successfu I Next use of r will be successful This argument entitles us to say that the degree of strength of the ruler b is 9/10. Hence we should increase the strength of the argument b to 9/10. I already indicated why I do not think that Black has shown that the reliability of the rule would be increased, but Black has not really explained why we are entitled to speak about degrees of reliability of the rule. It may be plausible to talk about degrees of strength of an argument as a function of the amount of evidence available. However, is it plausible to say that rules have varying degrees of reliability? Of course, three different rules could conceivably have distinct degrees of reliability, if we should find that the percentage of past M. Black's writing on inductive logic and critical discussions of them can be found in the following works. M. Black, "The Justification of Induction", Language and Philosophy, ( Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1949), pp. 59-88; "The Inductive Support of Inductive Rules", Problems of Analysis, (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1954), pp. 191-208; W.C. Salmon, "Should We attempt to Justify ·induction?", Philosophical Studies, VIII (1957), pp. 33-48; M. Black, "SelfSupporting Inductive Arguments", Journal of Philosophy, LV (1958), pp. 718-725, or pp. 209-218; P. Achinstein, "The Circularity of a Self-Supporting Argument", Analysis, XXII {1961-62), pp. 138-144; M. Clack, "Self-Supporting and Circularity: A Reply to Mr. Achinstein", Analysis, XXI 11 ( 1962-63), pp. 43-44; P. Achinstein, "Circularity and Induction", Analysis, XXI 11 (1962-63), pp. 123-127; H. Kyburg, "recent Work in Inductive Logic", American Philosophical Quarterly, I (1964), pp. 1-39; M. Black, "the Raison d'Etre of Inductive Argument", British Journal for the PhilScience, XVII (1966), pp. also in Margins of Precision (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1970); "The Justification of Induction", Philosophy of Science Today, S. Morgenbesser (ed.) (New York: Basic Books, 1967); "Self-Supporting Inductive Arguments", Models and Metaphors, pp. 210. osophy of 177-204; 2. 3. M. Black, 199-200. Problems of Analysis, pp. M. Black, "Self-Supporting Inductive Arguments",Models and Metaphors, p. 210. �21. L ICS 010-0 by: Dr. N.A. Weir, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay One consequence of the increased standards of living experienced by most industrial countries is the rapid increase in the volume of solid waste. Wrapping of foods to reduce contamination and prevent deterioration has brought many social benefits, which at present tend to outweigh the disadvantages of having to dispose of the packaging materials after use. Plastics are also replacing conventional containers, like glass and ceramics to an increasing extent. One needs only to look around the shelves of a supermarket to see polyethylene detergent and bleach containers, polyvinylchloride (P.V.C) shampoo and edible oil containers and polystyrene beverage cups. The advantages of these materials are obvious ease and cheapness of formation of variously shaped containers, favourable mechanical properties (non-brittle) and their light weights. However, the steadily increasing proportion of plastic wrapping materials and non-returnable plastic containers in domestic and industrial wastes is now causing major disposal problems in many parts of the world. A recent survey shows that three polymers account for 90% of municipal plastic waste. These are: polyethylene (38%), (31%), and polystyrene (21 %) ; the remaining 10% is composed of varying amounts of polypropylene, polyesters, polyvinylidene chloride, and cellulose acetates and butyrates. Unlike cellulosic packaging materials, like paper, the plastics mentioned above are not bio-degradable (i.e. capable of being broken down, ultimately to CO2 and H 20, by microorganisms), hence they tend to be very persistent in the environment. Lack of biodegradability can be attributed to three typical characteristics of the polymers most used in packaging. ( 1) The polymers are largely hydrophobic, and hence wettability by polar molecules, like water, a prerequisite for many biological reactions, is extremely low. (2) Permeabilities of these polymers to gases like oxygen are very low, and thus the efficiencies of many bio-processes are greatly impaired. (3) Molecular weights of these materials must be high to give them adequate mechanical strength. However, micro-organisms tend to attack at the of large molecules, and since the number of these ends is inversely proportional to the molecular· weight, it follows that the rate of attack on a polyethylene molecule which might be used in packaging (Molecular weight 120,000) will be very low. It .is ironic that the factors which determine the usefulness of these polymers in packaging are precisely the factors which lead to their persistence in the environment. Some typical biodegradability figures, measured on a growth rating scale of 1 to 10, are summarized below. Compound Molecular weight polyethylene polyethylene polyethylene polyethylene Growth Rating 129,000 52,500 13,800 1,350 0 0 1 2 polystyrene polystyrene 87,000 2,100 0 0 polyvinyl chloride 52,000 0 polypropylene 27,000 0 170 5 dodecane (C12H25) The importance of molecular weight can be seen by comparing the various polyethylenes and the chemically similar, non-poymeric molecule dodecane. The above polymers may be rendered bio-degradable, by modification of their hydrophobicities, their permeabilities and by decreasing their molecular wights. This can be achieved simply by exposing photo-degradable forms of these polymers to natural sunlight, or by adding suitable sensitizers to them, the sensitizers also absorbing sunlight, and initiating polymer degradation. It is convenient to discuss the two methods separate I y. �22. Ketone Polymers After two decades of research on the prevention of sunlight degradation of polymers, scientists are applying their results to the design of polymers which will readily undergo sunlight degradation. Chemically, the reactions which lead to the failure of the polypropylene webbing used on lawn chairs, are very similar to these which are involved in the disposal of photo-degradable polypropylene, and in both cases ketonic (or carbonyl) compounds play a critical role. When the carbonyl group, C = 0, absorbs ultra-violet radiation of wavelength around 300 nm, (1nm = 10 - 7 cm) - and natural sunlight contains a small ultra-violet component with wavelengths extending to around 295nm-one of the non-bonding (localized) electrons on the oxygen atom is promoted into an anti-bonding n* - molecular orbital, which results in the delocalization of the electron over the C and O atoms. Such a promotion is referred to as an n >- :r * transition (i.e. transition from an n-type to an anti bonding rr* molecular orbital) and the excited molecule so produced can react by undergoing bond fission adjacent to the C = 0 group. Two distinct processes are possible, and these occur in both polymers and in small molecules. 0 II CH 2 C / "'cH2 / "-. CH2 VCH2 A and it can be seen that both Reactions I and 11 will result in scission of the chain. To make polyethylene photo-degradable, it is necessary to introduce only one ketonic group per thirty carbon atoms in the chain; the fragments produced by photo-fission are potentially biodegradable. Photo-degradable polystyrene and polypropylene are now available commercially (know as "Ecolyte S" and "P" respectively). Ketonic groups are incorporated into these molecules by copolymerization of small amounts of phenyl vinyl ketone. . 0 II CH 2==CH-C-@ The resulting copolymers have the following structures, the ketone groups occuring at random in the chains, e.g. with styrene, CH 3 I C=O /' I " ~ KETOPOLYMER_ ~ II ~ + CH3-C==O RADICALS A+ OLEFJ!IL CH I 3 C=O ~ KETONE Reaction I (better known as the Norrish Type 1 process) results in the formation of two free radicals. A free radical is a species which contains an unpaired electron and which is formed by the homolytic fission of a covalent bond. Reaction 11 ( Norri sh Type 11) involves an intramolecular rearrangement which is accompanied by fission of the molecule if'1to another ketonic compound and an olefin. It can be seen that if a ketonic group is introduced into a polymer chain, exposure to ultra-violet radiation will result in scission of the main chain, ( Reaction 11) and this reaction is employed in one type of photo-degradable polymer. Photo-degradable polyethylene has the structure: Lifetimes of these polymers can be controlled by varying the phenyl vinyl ketone concentration in the copolymers. "Ecolyte S" and "P" were developed by Dr. J.E. Guillet and his co-workers at the University of Toronto. It should be emphasized that in all of the above examples, the physical properties of the photo-degradable polymers are indistinguishable (except for ultra-violet absorption characteristics) from those of the pure homopolymers. (2) Sensitized Photo-degradation An alternative approach to photo-degradable plastics has been made by Dr. G. Scott at the University of Aston, England, and this employs a combination of photo-oxidation and subsequent photo-degredation. Free radicals, like those formed in Reaction I, being electrondeficient species react readily with molecular 1 oxygen in the air-the oxygen molecule exists in a triplet state - to produce peroxy radicals �23. which in turn abstract hydrogen atoms to produce a hydroperoxide and a new radical. The hydroperoxide is a key intermediate, since it absorbs the ultra-violet component of the sunlight, leading to photo-fission of the bonds adjacent to the peroxide (-0-0-) group. The new radicals framed can continue the oxidation process, and a chain reaction can develop. Photo-oxidation of a polymer is illustrated by the following reaction sequence, which incidentally, is the same sequence that leads to the deterioration of the useful properties of polypropylene on exposure to sunlight. RH - R POLYMER CH 2 0 2 -R0 2 - - . RADICAL 0-0·H CH 2 "-CH/ R0 2 H PEl'l_~QE The process is summarized by the following scheme: (MXn is the initiator) MXnuv_X• 0 2-X02• X0 2 • + RH -X0 2 H + R• R•+0 2 ► R0 2 • -R0 2 H (Peroxide) 0·0 H I CH2" /CH 2 ,, uv 'CH _ ,, CH 2 , ~H +HO•+CH 2 /'v 0 Addition of smal I amounts of these dithiocarbamate complexes to polyethylene polypropylene and polystyrene render the polymer photo-degradable, and their lifetimes can be controlled by variation of the concentration of photo-initiator. The iron complex, 0 . UV CH 2 LIGHT CH +HO•+CH 2 /'v' -~R_Q_~!fil:.. It can be seen that photolysis of the hydroperoxide will lead to chain scission, and ultimately to destruction of the polymer. One advantage of this system is that the oxidation reactions do not require continuous illumination; hydroperoxides can be formed in the dark, and subsequently decomposed on exposure to sunlight. One disadvantage of the system illustrated above is that the initial production of free radical centers on the polymer is intrinsically very slow, and thus photo-oxidation as such, is not a practical system for photo-disposable plastics. Scott discovered, largely by accident, that initiation of the photo-oxidation could readily be accomplished by adding suitable substances to the polymer. The compounds found most useful in this regard are the dithicarbamate complexes of transition metals (M). M S-C-N [ II s /C2H5] "'-c 2 H5 n is particulary attractive as a photo-activator for degradation of plastics used in the food-stuffs inqustry sine~ it is non-toxic. Yet another group of photo-initiators has been developed by scientists at the National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. These compounds are aromatic ketones like benzophenone, which absorb 0 II CH 3 - C - @ ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight spectrum to produce excited triplet molecules by n~* transitions. ( In the triplet state the electrons in the n* and n-type molecular orbitals have parallel spins). The triplets have sufficiently long lifetimes to undergo hydrogen abstraction reactions with the polymers, again forming radical centers on the chains, as follows: ( n = 2 or 3 ) Used in high concentrations these molecules act as photo-stabilizers (molecules added to inhibit photo-degradation), but become photoinitiators at low concentrations ( <1%). Initiation is brought about as follows. On exposure to sunlight the photo-initiator is decomposed into free radicals, which react with oxygen in the air to form peroxy radicals, which in turn abstract hydrogen from the polymer chains forming radical centers. The polymeric radicals then undergo oxidation. f r ~ 1· CH3-C-Ph ~ LCH3-C-Phj ~ • 0-H [ CH3-C-R~ -+-RH-CH3-bH-Rh + R• R• + 02-R02 • --R02 H The polymer is then oxidized and the chains broken by exposure of the hydroperoxides to sunlight. �24. THE CO by: Mr. 8. Spenceley, Lakehead University 0 ND ICR OPE the distance between the focal points. From the following simple diagram it is clear that It scarcely needs to be said that the compound microscope is widely used in the teaching of biology, but whether most students have a sufficient understanding of the opera- LENS 1 LENS 2 tion of the microscope is debatable. The purpose of this series of articles is to improve this understanding and to enable students to get more use out of their instruments. One of the important characteristics of an instrument for examining small objects is its magnification. There is a certain amount of arbitrariness about the definitions of magnification. The angular magnification, which is the When the last two equations are combined a type we are concerned with here, is usually simple expression for the effective focal length defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by results:- f=-f1f2 the object at the distance of most distinct 'x, vision to the angle subtended by the object The point of all this is that although it is seen through the instrument. A value of 25 difficult to make a single short-focal-length lens ems is usually taken as the average distance of we can get the same effect by using two most distinct vision, although there is a great moderately 'short' lenses separated by a reladeal of variation in this from one person to tively large distance Q,. Because £. is in the another. denominator large values of x mean small The simplest optical device for examining values of f. So the compound microscope can smal I objects is a single lens of short focal be regarded as a simple magnifier; as such its length. If f is the focal length in centimeters magnification is the magnification, m, is 25/f so one would be m = 25 =-t· 25 -fTi 0 tempted to consider that higher and higher magnifications could be easily obtained by Sometimes it is more usetul to consider the making f smaller and smaller. In practice effect of the two lenses separately. The first magnifications up to 20x can be achieved using lens (fi), usually called the objective, forms a simple magnifiers but attempts to get higher ,real, inverted image of the object in the focal magnifications are hindered by the aberrations plane of the second lens, the ocular or eyethat always accompany lenses of short enough piece lens. The lateral magnification of the focal length and large enough aperture to be objective is - x,/fi. The second lens is then used useful. as a simple magnifier to look more closely at The compound microscope overcomes this this intermediate image. The angular magnificadifficulty by using a pair of lenses relatively tion of the eyepiece is of course 25/f 2. The well separated. Elementary optics texts show overall magnification of the compound microthat if two lenses whose focal lengths are f 1 scope which we have al ready noted to be and f? are separated by a distance t, the [-£/fi] [25/f2] is merely the product of the effective focal length of the com bi nation is individual magnifications of the objective and given by the simple equation eyepiece lens. Because the magnification of the eyepiece 1_1 + 1 t -f-f f - ~ depends only on its focal length, it is feasible 2 1 to mark the lens mount with the magnificaThe equation looks more useful if t, the tion. This is the meaning of the numbers such distance between the lenses is replaced by£, as 1OX or 15X found on oculars. The magnifi- �25. cation of the objective on the other hand depends on the length , and unless this is known and constant the magnification cannot be specified. For this reason microscope manufacturers have standardized the distance . at 160 mm for the great majority of their instruments. For these microscopes it is possible to engrave the objective magnification on the lens barrel, the number is unchanged if the objective is used in a conventional microscope no matter what the country of origin an example of international cooperation that could well be imitated by other apparatus manufacturers. The overall magnification of the compound microscopes used by most schools is simply obtained by multiplying together the magnifications engraved on eyepiece and objective fenses. Another imoortant characteristic of the compound microscope is its resolving power or i ability to distinguish small details. This is not the same thing as magnification; it is relatively easy to get large magnifications, for example by making x, larger, but this does not ensure that more detail is visible. High magnification that is not accompanied by good resolution is called "empty magnification" because the increased image size does not carry any more information about the subject. The image is larger but blurrier. For a microscope of good quality the resolving power is limited by the diffraction of light in the plane of the object under examination; in an inferior instrument it could be limited by ordinary lens defects. A proper treatment of the theory of diffraction in microscopy is beyond the scope of this article, but some of the basic ideas can be conveyed in relatively simple terms. When a beam of light passes an object whose size is comparable to the wavelength of thP light, the beam is diffracted, by which we , mean that some of the Iight on the far side ot the object travels in directions different from the original one. Usually the beam breaks up into several beams - one undisturbed by the object, a pair making a small angle to the original direction, and so on. Two cases are illustrated in the following figures, first a relatively large object and then a small object. The diagrams illutstrate the important idea that the smaller the object is the larger are the diffraction angles, and the larger the object is the smaller are the diffraction angles. The information about the size and shape of the object is carried in the angular spread and relative intensities of the diffracted beams. The size of the object compared to the wavelength is also important in determining the angular spread of the diffracted beams. For an object of a given size the longer wavelengths (the red end of the spectrum) are diffracted through larger angles than the shorter wavelengths (the blue end of the spectrum). If the objective lens of the microscope is small in diameter compared to its distance from the object, the angle it subtends at the object will also be small. If the angle is so small that only the undiffracted beam enters the lens, then it is as if there were no object there at all, since that would also be the only beam in the absence of an object. In order even to detect the presence of the object the Undiffracted Beam Diffracted Diffracted Beams Beams \ =-1 \\f/ ~ Relatively J,1 large Object - _,... 8 t Incident light Undiffracted Beam Diffracted Diffracted Beams ~ .±~ / Smal I Object / ± Incident Light Beams �26 Objective Lens 1st Diffracted Beam e--Object lens must at least be able to accept the first diffracted beams as shown in the next diagram. The limit of resolution of a microscope is therefore the smallest object whose first diffracted beams are just accepted by the objective. Naturally, if more detail is needed than the mere existence of the object, then the lens must be able· to accept more of the diffracted beams. Strictly speaking, the resolving power is related to a quantity called the numerical aperture of the objective lens which is the product of the sine of the half-angle subtended by the lens at the object and the index of refraction of the medium below the lens usually air but sometimes not. The resolving power is the wavelength of the light divided by the numerical aperture - Aln sin ex: • The best~ resolution is obtained by using blue light and by filling the space between the object and the lens with a liquid ofhigh refractive index. EDITOR'S AND COLLABORATORS' COMMENTS 1 GIT L Po TI IPTLIGOTT: a sophisticated anglo-saxon surname? ...... . or is the answer simply biodegradable? Please permutate, decypher and send in your interpretation. �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. "CARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E 1 �PLEASE LEA VE ME ABOUT FOR OTHERS TO READ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 6 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 6, November 1975. Articles on a variety of topics: History of photography Culture, politics and geography Concentrated fire power Mathematics and the Arts student Marriage Topology Induction Photo-degradable plastics Compound microscopes Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-11 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/4/1447/UG6-AV-I-512.jpg cabea2393da3447519ff7a44a829a90a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cargill executives: Don Smirl (left) & Gary Speer (right) with students Steven Wier & Kathy Gosse Subject The topic of the resource People University Life Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Published in Agora Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998-2 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context UG6-AV-I-512 Don Smirl Gary Speer Kathy Gosse People Published in the Agora Steven Wier https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/d53d311c6b916281f0c59138fe437fcb.tif 7228501c677b4ea750ef537b93e12201 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ken Armson fonds Subject The topic of the resource Forestry Description An account of the resource A collection of thousands of photographic slides depicting Ken Armson's work in the field of forestry, 1952-1995. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952-1995 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource These images have been digitized and shared on this site with permission. Most are still under copyright. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photo Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caribou 1956 Subject The topic of the resource Forest Products Industry Description An account of the resource Rural town Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Lakehead University Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1956 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource TIF Type The nature or genre of the resource Photograph Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Ken Armson-field research-4box10 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/290d8fe0ccb85ec7c76f6c861d85bf43.tif 5cefe90a01e476e62f1b1159237e603b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ken Armson fonds Subject The topic of the resource Forestry Description An account of the resource A collection of thousands of photographic slides depicting Ken Armson's work in the field of forestry, 1952-1995. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952-1995 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource These images have been digitized and shared on this site with permission. Most are still under copyright. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Carl Schenck Forest - loblolly pine - Pinus taeda Subject The topic of the resource Forest Products Industry Description An account of the resource Students at Carl Schenck Forest looking at loblolly pine that belongs to forest type pinus taeda Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource TIF Type The nature or genre of the resource Image Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Armson-North Carolina-3b Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant USA - North Carolina - Carl Schenck Forest Carl Schenck Forest lobolly pine Pinus taeda https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e65d862ef010b5f2d43e22cece3497a8.tif 4386a51198930fac9d46afe86573bda9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ken Armson fonds Subject The topic of the resource Forestry Description An account of the resource A collection of thousands of photographic slides depicting Ken Armson's work in the field of forestry, 1952-1995. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952-1995 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource These images have been digitized and shared on this site with permission. Most are still under copyright. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Carl Schenck Forest - Pinus taeda Subject The topic of the resource Forest Products Industry Description An account of the resource Students at Carl Schenck Forest looking at loblolly pine Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource TIF Type The nature or genre of the resource Image Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Armson-North Carolina-3a Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant USA - North Carolina Carl Schenck Forest Pinus taeda https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/ee4277763a40110b9ccb86c88d328a24.tif 8a02ebab595c66df146f87b4e93d92d4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ken Armson fonds Subject The topic of the resource Forestry Description An account of the resource A collection of thousands of photographic slides depicting Ken Armson's work in the field of forestry, 1952-1995. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952-1995 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource These images have been digitized and shared on this site with permission. Most are still under copyright. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Carl Schenck Forest - Pinus taeda Subject The topic of the resource Forest Products Industry Description An account of the resource Pinus taeda with heavy undergrowth at Carl Schenck Forest Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource TIF Type The nature or genre of the resource Image Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Armson-North Carolina-5a Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant USA - North Carolina Carl Schenck Forest Pinus taeda https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/3652fe6d9549879561bb1a31d18d5f27.tif d981eb2bde323c8308067967932e1f78 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ken Armson fonds Subject The topic of the resource Forestry Description An account of the resource A collection of thousands of photographic slides depicting Ken Armson's work in the field of forestry, 1952-1995. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952-1995 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource These images have been digitized and shared on this site with permission. Most are still under copyright. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Carl Schenck Forest - Pinus taeda Subject The topic of the resource Forest Products Industry Description An account of the resource Pinus taeda with heavy undergrowth at Carl Schenck Forest Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource TIF Type The nature or genre of the resource Image Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Armson-North Carolina-5b Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant North Carolina Carl Schenck Forest Pinus taeda https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/45944f8c43b320bc661e94b39ebb8068.tif 42870a5571374e5f1c8dcb6e59fd6040 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ken Armson fonds Subject The topic of the resource Forestry Description An account of the resource A collection of thousands of photographic slides depicting Ken Armson's work in the field of forestry, 1952-1995. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952-1995 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource These images have been digitized and shared on this site with permission. Most are still under copyright. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Carl Schenck Forest - Pinus taeda Subject The topic of the resource Forest Products Industry Description An account of the resource Fusiform rust gall in loblolly, Carl Schenck Forest, Pinus taeda Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Armson Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource TIF Type The nature or genre of the resource Image Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context Armson-North Carolina - 6a Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant USA - North Carolina Carl Schenck Forest Pinus taeda