1326 10 13641 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e55b90df7e732f606a53e7fe2b6e9ef1.jpg 3c57ffce041e1b5e0d95450c14ce28e6 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/75117d354532567e60107a53b01f55d3.jpg 9a64ba277da154b82797e5d489ee5d0d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dr Noble Benjamin Hall Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Health and Medicine Description An account of the resource Dr Noble Benjamin Hall Dean, son of Samuel Corban Dean and Eliza Hall Kelly Dean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Brock & Co, Brighton Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Canada - Ontario - Brighton https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/b6db70ddb2611611928c44bc0b00bc5f.jpg 7bd78b9883b320cec9db6234f8287dd4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mrs Noble Benjamin Hall Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Description An account of the resource Mrs Noble Benjamin Hall Dean. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/6887ca6a7ead53a9664608e1cb9da261.jpg 277de82eb935df9c9f0e82e5cf87989f https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/f4b979247b0b232418a260c0409dc32f.jpg a8ba22f2f1806957d127df9c72d2d645 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Samuel Corban Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Description An account of the resource Samuel Corban Dean, married Eliza Cecilia Hall Kelly. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/b919694b7eb1bf5440cd4c46a57abb11.jpg 20c1d54fff7081eece3eafa1fc5a60ae https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/af192532ab7ed7639b13dd0d78de1649.jpg e3876f6f874f2dd056b2bbb68a2b98b6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Samuel Corban Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Description An account of the resource Samuel Corban Dean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource R Summers, Port Hope Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Canada - Ontario - Port Hope https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e43bde2345a558886daddf1053b08837.jpg 241026d7acb18328ca06e892fb89c34c https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/48117c619801af699ded266f704b9f12.jpg edc45bd028af46a1acb30e02a8074d05 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Samuel Corban Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Description An account of the resource Samuel Corban Dean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J L Richmond, Port Hope Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Canada - Ontario - Port Hope https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/4cc641c586e8f97e868c911486084f05.jpg 6a1ffe8a13f5def71822963347d46d18 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/c3dee81de004a89e55c840493dab3d2e.jpg 6304bea6477a3712300b814be8d8b489 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eliza Hall Kelly Description An account of the resource Eliza Hall Kelly, wife of Samuel Corban Dean. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image Subject The topic of the resource People https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/13ac7250e637af40ec87009bbb268133.jpg 8083d438e584a3de56171a84f26a5654 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/a761c1a41daffe169f94cb5b875430c6.jpg 6a4f4bbf4c84284af813ce804934be2c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Smith Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Description An account of the resource Smith Dean, son of Samuel Corban Dean and Eliza Hall Kelly Dean. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/2e478aad41ab8386b87398a2d6e3925c.jpg 961fa462d85b696069431ef69486c4f6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Moving Image A series of visual representations imparting an impression of motion when shown in succession. Examples include animations, movies, television programs, videos, zoetropes, or visual output from a simulation. Player HTML embed code <iframe width="480" height="270" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/RD7-cmjDqk4" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe> Imported Thumbnail If a thumbnail images was imported for an embedded video, its id is recorded here and the thumbnail is hidden on pages displaying the embedded video itself. https://i.ytimg.com/vi/RD7-cmjDqk4/default.jpg Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University's First Convocation, May 6, 1965 Description An account of the resource Video of the very first convocation held for Lakehead University, May 6, 1965. Convocation was held at St. Patrick's Cathedral in Fort William. 76 graduands received diplomas or degrees. The ceremony also sees the installation of Senator Norman M. Paterson as Chancellor, and an address by Claude Bissell, president of the University of Toronto. Video is just under 16 minutes long, without any original sound. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-05-06 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived http://youtu.be/RD7-cmjDqk4 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="https://www.youtube.com/static?template=terms">Standard YouTube License</a> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Type The nature or genre of the resource Video A Truly Canadian Experience Barri Canada College higher education Lakehead Lakeheadu MyLakehead Ontario Orillia Post-secondary Research University school Study in Canada Thunder Bay Top University University https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e731227523cb1fcf34e0bade5071efd4.pdf d551bd997528b3e39eb075fd927e03d4 PDF Text Text caret LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW VOLUME 1 NUMBER 1 A PUBLICATION OF THE ONLY FACULTY OF SCIENCE THAT TRULY UNDERSTANDS NORTHWESTERN ONTARIO �Caret JANUARY 1973 A LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW incorporating LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CARET (kar'at) n. A sign (" or 11.) placed below a line to indicate where something should be inserted. What is missing? Well - a title, for one thing, and a magazine without a title is unthinkable! We, the editors, are not at all sure what you would like us to do, but we do know one thing there is a disastrous communications gap between High Schools and Universities: the bridge across it is missing and we will hope to span the void if only with a gossamer thread. Let us know what kind of articles you would like to see. Write an article yourself and send it in. Push your science teachers into sending us stories about their scientific and personal interests, or write about them yourselves (what an opportunity!). Above all, don't think that what you have to say will not be of any interest to us: let us be the judge of that. And, please don't assume that university scientists are somehow not quite human; we experience the same emotions of fear and hope, love and hate as the majority of human kind . Oh, about the title. The 1378-page, four volume Harper Encyclopaedia of Science for the best title. Why not fill in the form on the back page and send it to us TODAY? Naturally, I am still extremely interested in any publication that may come forth. Would it be possible to be placed on your mailing list? Once I get my head above water around here, I'd be glad to send you an article on teaching Canadian students some science in a German environment. Let me know if I can be of some assistance! - E.F. Dojack, Lahr Senior School, Canadian Forces Base, Europe. C.F.P.O. 5000. We'll be very pleased to hear from you from time to time, and we hope you will send us an article when you have settled down a bit. - Ed. CONGRATULATIONS! This is the first edition of the Lakehead University Science Review, "CARET". It was conceived by the Faculty of Science as a logical extension of the Lakehead University Mathematics Gazette into a wider area of subjects. We hope that it will be as successful as the "Gazette" and create active interest in the many aspects of Science. Our editor, Dr. John Hart, deserves our thanks for the initiative and vigour he has shown in collecting such varied articles from many eminent authors. We hope that each will contribute again to later editions. Good reading to you all. The encyclopaedia is really worth having. The views expressed in Caret do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Editor, the Faculty or the University. Caret is published by the Faculty of Science of Lakehead University. Thunder Bay "P", Ontario, Canada. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR R. A. Ross, Dean, Faculty of Science Dear Professor Hart: Thank you very much for your recent letter. May I take this opportunity of conveying my good wishes for the success of your Journal. Science is everybody's business. Kindest regards. Thank you for your letter of August 15. As you have probably guessed from my return address, I am teaching with the Canadian Armed Forces here in Germany for the next two years. Mr. W.A. (Bill) Luft has taken over as Head of Science at Lakeview. Yours sincerely, Alastair Gillespie, M.P., Etobicoke �A SCIENTIST LOOKS AT SOCIETY By Andrew D. Booth terribly practicable solution. Even so, the time involved is still quite short, about 900 years, in fact. Yet another solution which has been proposed to cope with the population increase is to export population to adjacent planets. As things appear at the present time, the only possible candidate would seem to be Mars, although, assuming a high degree of technological competence, one might include Venus in the argument. However, it should be noted that a 1.9% increase per annum in population involves a doubling in 37 years for Mars and a very much smaller time then to cover Venus. ARE WE HEADING FOR DOOMSDAY? Thinking and reading members of our community at the present time are bombarded with information about "ecological catastrophe". On the other hand, the voices of industry and government assure us that many of the warnings of the more frenetic environmentalists are without foundation. It may, therefore, be interesting to consider the sort of hard information which the scientist can give about problems of this type, and to do this, 1 shall explain briefly three approaches to the problem. 593 YEARS TO GO The first approach is what one might call the worst case geometric one. Here, one assumes that the surface of the earth is drained of water in some way which is yet to be discovered, that humanity goes on increasing in numbers at its present rate of approximately 1.9% per annum, and that the limit is attained when the surface of the earth is covered solidly with people standing shoulder to shoulder and back to back. This situation is covered by the simple compound interest law learned at school and by the formula known to the Greeks for the area of spherical surfaces. 1nserting the relative parameters, it turns out that at this rate of population increase, the earth's surface will be covered in only 593 years from now. Remembering that this is just about the period since the renaissance, and that no assumptions have been made about the way in which society operates, the way in which wars may reduce population and so on, this is a far from reassuring figure. The second argument which can be used is what one might describe as the thermodynamic one. in this, we assume that the surface of the earth is covered not only with a single layer but with people stacked shoulder to shou Ider, back to back, and feet to head. In other words, they are accommodated in multi-storey skyscrapers. The problem involved here is one of great interest to the physicist since, in the last analysis, it resolves itself into one of energy dissipation. When the population of the world reaches about 10 17 people, the skin temperature of the outside of the structure required to dissipate the human energy into space, would have to run at a temperature of something like 5,000° C which is precisely the temperature of the outer layers of the sun. One need hardly say that this is not a ZERO POPULATION GROWTH NOW Finally, one can consider the so-called M. I. T. model. Th is relates the future to the socio-economic variables of the present. Such models are extremely complex and their study has only been possible since the advent of large electronic computers. Whilst some of the details of the M. I. T. model are open to question, the main structure is sound. The model shows that, unless radical steps are taken to ensure zero population growth now, only about 100 years remain until the world population is reduced to about¼ of its present value by an eco-catastrophe. This neglects the very real possibility of a major war and points up the urgent need for an in-depth application of the hard physical and mathematical sciences to the soft area of sociology. t 2 �SCIENCE IN SOCIETY By C. K. Mclellan THE ROLE OF SCIENTISTS Information must be presented so that it is easily understood by non-scientists. It does no good to attempt to dazzle people with unintelligible jargon. [ Amen! - Ed J The second approach lies in more direct action on several political levels. The scientist should be involved in political and community action groups where he has direct contact with other citizens. As the traditional training grounds for highly professional scientists, universities should have an important part in developing a social responsibility for science. The two dominant functions of universities have always been education and research and the current problem is how best to execute these functions in scientific fields for the benefit of society. The system provides some students with a broad general background of knowledge, but often with few specific work skills. Such a graduate frequently fails to impress an industrial employer, who notes with dismay the considerable practical training this person will require in order to become a productive employee. On the other hand, industries must bear in mind that in the long run, it is more to their advantage to have employees whose wide background knowledge allows them to be flexible in their work, than to have only narrow specialists. Of late, people have begun to consider more carefully the role of science in society. This unexpected turn of events has caught many scientists unprepared, for they grew accustomed to the attitudes prevailing in our technological society in the 1950's - an attitude which seemed almost to hold science and its devotees in awe for their considerable contributions to recent world developments. SCIENCE IS A TOOL Prior to this century, the dominant role of science was the discovery of new knowledge. Beginning early in the 1900's, however, the trend to urbanization and industrialization of the western world translated much of this knowledge into new products and services. As a corollary, the role of science was altered to emphasize these goals of the industrial society. The transformation was highly successful. Science became an essential tool in our production - and consumption-oriented economy. The role of science assumed two important aspects: the continuation of this line of economic and social development through product improvement; and, the evaluation of new ideas. Science's "experts" became highly respected as important parts of a system which provided the good life for many. This, in turn, produced in our educational systems a great emphasis on training more scientists in the "practical" fields where their skills could be applied to immediate problems. The economic system which uses technology, and the people who welcome its benefits, must share some responsibility for the problems it has created: scientists must accept a large portion of the responsibility, but it seems that scientists have often divorced their role as scientists from their role as citizens. CANADIAN BASIC RESEARCH IN DILEMMA The research function of a university arises quite naturally. University researchers seek approval from their peer group - other researchers. Hence in order to be respected, a university must produce high-quality research results through its graduate school. The amount of research done this way is valuable, particularly in Canada. In our so-called branch plant economy, industries tend to emphasize research in the narrow areas of product and process improvement, and the "basic" research for which there may be no immediate application is left to the foreign parent company. If a significant amount of basic research is to be done in Canada it appears that universities must do much of it. The dilemma arises in the choice of topics for investigation, for the benefits of research should accrue both to the scientific community and to the larger community of Canadian people. This implies that a significant proportion of such work must be FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY A scientist must be given the freedom to speak out on matters touching his field of expertise and he must accept the responsibility. He should shun the pose of the expert and should function, rather, as a "resource person" whose knowledge should be shared by others, for it is the entire society which must evaluate the information and choose courses of action. A first approach to this goal may be made through the professional associations of scientists. 3 �at the beginning of this year. Gradually it solidified; mountains were formed and eroded and formed again; the ocean basins and continents began to take shape. For perhaps half of this year the earth was barren and lifeless. Then at some indeterminate point in August, life in the form of single-celled organisms appeared in the seas. It was not until late November that Iife forms emerged from the waters and were able to survive on land. The age of the great dinosaurs was as recent as mid-December. And modern man did not evolve until the last few minutes of our year. Now the question must arise as to what evidence there is to substantiate these divisions of time. Fossils of course give us the clues to the last 600 million years, but what about the more than half of earth's history when there was no life present or organisms were soft-bodied and could not leave fossil evidence? By what means do we divide this immense span of time into more concise parts? The answer to this question lies in the field of geochronology. Using radioactive elements and their known rate of decay into stable end products, it is possible to calculate the time required to produce a certain quantity of the stable substance and hence the age of the original radioactive element. Several methods of radioactive dating are employed. The uranium-lead method can give us the absolute age of a rock but is useful only when there are lead-bearing minerals present. Far. more abundant are potassiumbearing minerals, and for dating these we use the potassium-argon "clock". However this method does not give us the absolute age of a rock, rather the date of the most recent orogenic (mountain-building) event to which it was subjected. For example, prior to the application of this method of geological dating, much of the Canadian Shield was simply regarded as Precambrian (older than 600 million years or before November in our analogous year). Now we know more specifically that the rocks of the eastern Shield underwent their most recent metamorphic event about one billion years ago, whereas those of the western regions were last metamorphosed about 2.5 billion years ago. Thus we can now subdivide the Precambrian of Canada into periods of orogeny. By such methods of dating we not only learn the ages of rocks and events, but can divide huge eras of time such as the Precambrian into more specific and meaningful periods, making geological time and evolution that much easier to comprehend. tailored to the foreseeable needs of our nation. Considerable emphasis should be placed on these needs in choosing research topics, and as responsible citizens, scientists should be doing this themselves. The abdication of such responsibility invites forced direction of research from the governments which supply a significant portion of funding for research. University education should be broad enough to create a search for alternate approaches to the solution of socio-technogical problems. For example; in the problem of energy shortages currently plaguing parts of North America, the conventional solution is to seek technical means of meeting the increased demand for energy. The success of such solutions has led producers to invite increased demand which in turn raises consumption. It would be better to find a way of cutting back on the rate of increase in demand for energy. SCIENTISTS ARE CITIZENS Alternate approaches to large problems often range beyond the fields of expertise of the specialist. No grouping of experts alone can make the decisions, for the implications may be so broad that only society as a whole can decide. That may well be where the major role for science lies in the future - not in product development and production, but as an information resource for a society which we can but hope will be pursuaded to develop rationally. The relative importance of science will be diminished as scientists de-emphasize their roles as experts in favour of their roles as citizens. t GEOLOGICAL TIME By: M. Kehlenbeck MAN HAS LIVED FOR A FEW MINUTES Geological time spans are among the most difficult concepts to comprehend. It is common for us to think in terms of years, generations, and centuries. However beyond this, time becomes, for most of us, merely a number of many zeros without any real meaning. Yet the geologist speaks constantly in these terms. At present we believe the age of the earth to be about 4.5 billion years and the existence of life on earth to be of approximately 2 billion years duration. Do these figures really signify anything to you? Perhaps an analogy can serve to make these time spans more meaningful. Let us use one of our years to represent the entire history of earth. Our planet then was forming t 4 �SO YOU WANT TO BE AN ATHLETE? By J. Widdop A KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE MIGHT HELP! of the biceps and brach ial is and the resistance being the forearm itself whether or not a weight is being held in the hand. Normally, when considering levers the force is assumed to be acting at right-angles but with muscle action this is rarely observed. Using the It is difficult for many people to accept or even recognize the relationship which exists between Mathematics and Athletics. The purpose of this article is to indicate a few of the various aspects of that relationship. Many students who excel in mathematics are excellent athletes, a well-known example being Frank Ryan who was quarterback for the Cleveland Browns and has a Ph.D. in mathematics. "ACTION- AND REACTION- APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES Three fairly simple formulae are shown below. See if you can identify them: a} _____½ 2 2 R+ R = v sin 8 cos 8 + V cos 9 v sin 2 9 + 2gh 2 .. . •• .. g _______½ b} R +R +R = 1 2 3 • v2sin8cos8+V • • • • 2 cos8V sin 2 0+2g (h-Csin8) fl • ,, ,. .J •• . 14.· ARE EQUAL 9 + c sin a+ c cos 8 c} I am certain (?) that you will recognize that a} and b) are derived from the basic laws governing the path of a projectile which describes a parabola and show the formulae for the flight of a shot and the distance covered by a long jumper respectively. c) may be used to calculate how much further a fast ball may be hit than a slow ball, assuming all other pertinent data are equal (U 1 = velocity of ball before meeting bat}. These three examples constitute only a sample of the plethora of similar formulae which are applied everyday - whether by chance or design - in the realms of physical activity. AND OPP OSI TE ! " flexing of the forearm again as an example the usual formula needs to be modified. Let us. suppose we are holding a 5 lb. weight in the hand with the forearm fully extended and wish to know what force need be exerted to start the flexion of the forearm. We may assume that the weight arm (from weight the force point) is 12" and that the force arm (muscle insertion to fulcrum - elbow point) is 2". Normally the formula would read: THE BODY IS A MACHINE The human body contains many examples of levers with the bone itself constituting the rigid bar, the joint being the fulcrum and the contracting muscle the force. Most body movements are produced through third-class levers where the force point lies between the fulcrum and the resistance point. Examples are when one flexes the forearm with the elbow acting as the fulcrum, the force being applied at the insertion point Force x Force Arm F x 5 = Weight 2 5 F 2 x Weight Arm or in our case X 12 60 30 lbs. �The Y component of R creates Iift while the X component has a retarding effect and is called drag. Most coaches encourage their charges to kick or throw at a lower angle than usual into a head wind or higher with a tail wind. The Russian discus throwers are informed of the precise wind conditions prior to throwing and adjust the angle of release accordingly, which may vary from as low as 22° to above the "ideal" 45°. As a matter of interest the best results were obtained with the discus inclined at 35° and a head wind not exceeding 14 m.p.h. Spin or gyration is also applied in many sports and has either a stablizing effect that holds an object on course, or resists a ohange in the direction of the axis of the object. If the spin on a football is too little, the ball will float or travel end over end, while too much spin will tend to cause the ball to swerve from its intended path. All baseball pitchers know that a spinning ball will tend to move in the direction in which it is spinning; a top spin will cause the ball to drop while a ball spinning counterclockwise (viewed from above) will curve away to the pitcher's left. Th is is caused by the increased air resistance met by the ball on the side which is spinning into the created head wind. In such games as basketball, tennis, table-tennis, handball, cricket and billiards, spin is used to change the direction of the ball by use of the relevant surface area rather than through the air, although certain top class bowlers in cricket are capable of causing the ball to curve through the air one way and then - upon striking the ground - spin back sharply in the opposite direction. This would be one example of applying both air resistance and gyration .effects, while a tennis serve could be another. However, the applied force in this case is not at right angles but at an angle of approximately 5° with the lever. Therefore a more realistic calculation of the force exerted by the biceps would, in our example, be F = 30 sin 5° 30 .0872 344 lbs. If we started at 30° angle the force required would be: F = 30 .5 = 60 lbs. It can be seen that to exert great force the force arm should be as long as possible while for greater speed the force arm should be relatively short. In the movement of body parts we have no real control over these factors as the muscle attachments which are the source of the exerted force are fixed. Wrestling however shows how the lever principle can be used outside the body. To prevent an opponent from turning by holding his arm on the mat it will be most effective to grasp the arm as close to the hand as possible with the arm fully extended at right angles to the body. Th is guarantees the greatest moment of force and the greatest mechanical advantage. Conversely if one wishes to turn an opponent quickly then a short force arm is required, an example being the use of a half-nelson where the force is applied at the shoulder. Kinesiology (the science of movement) helps the student - athlete to better understand the scientific principles which will enable him to train and perform at a higher level than before. These same principles can then be passed on to his own students when he becomes a qualified teacher/coach. CROSSING THE BAR The body's centre of gravity is considered in many sports activities: it can be located at about the height of the hips midway between the front and back of an individual who is standing erect or lying flat with arms at the side. If the attitude of the body or parts is changed then the c. of g. is changed. It is possible for the c. of g. to be located outside the body when performing such activities as vaulting or somersaults in gymnastics or diving. The modern styles of the High Jump have evolved because of a better knowledge and understanding of kinesiological principles. Research has shown that in the vertical jump some of the world's greatest jumpers - with their arms at their sides - have been able to raise their c. of g. only about two feet. Th is emphasizes the necessity of the application of sound mechanics principles and the perfecting of jumping techniques to achieve heights that exceed seven feet. If we take ALLOW FOR THE WIND Aerodynamics play a major role in such activ- ities as the discus and in the kicking or throwing of a football. The equation R CPSV 2 2 expresses the reaction resulting from the diversion of the air stream about a moving airborne body. R the resulting reaction. C = a numerical non-dimensional coefficient dependent upon the shape of the object and its attitude to the air stream. P = air pressure (15 lb./sq. in. at sea level). S = the active surface area of the object over which the air stream flows. V = the velocity of the air stream with respect to the object. 6 �pf a 100 yard sprinter, or running on a sharply a pole about 6 feet long and hold it vertically then let it drop so that it bounces straight back up, it will probably bounce only a few inches from the ground. If we throw it down it will bounce considerably higher. Let us repeat this experiment but, at the high point of the bounce, grab the pole at its mid-point (c. of g.) and turn it horizontally so that it is now parallel to the floor and is now four to five feet from the ground. Here we have indicated (very crudely) the essential differences between the Scissors style of high jumping and the lay-out styles currently used. In the Scissors style the jumper's c. of g. passes over the bar and is quite a considerable height above the bar because the jumper is almost in a sitting position at the peak of the jump. If, however, we lay-out as we cross the bar our c. of g. still passes above the bar but is much closer to it. In essence, for the same amount of force and energy expended, we should achieve a greater height. In the Western Roll, however, the whole of the body is - at some point - lying on its side above the bar. If we go a step further and use the Straddle style, or "flop" popularized by Fosbury or Debbie Brill we find that the body rotates around the bar and at no time are all parts of the body above the bar. Th is then gives the effect of the c. of g. passing under the bar thus again giving the capacity for achieving even greater heights. Other mechanics included in the well-executed high jump include: a) a vigorous stamping of the take-off foot hard against the ground (Newton's third law) and b) the forceful swinging up of the free leg and the arms to increase the lifting force of the body, showing the principle of transfer of momentum from part to whole. This principle can easily be experienced by trying to do a sit up from a back lying position, i) first with the arms to the side then, ii) starting with the arms stretched overhead with the backs of the hands touching the floor and initiating the movement by a vigorous upward and forward swing of the arms. banked indoor track, or a basketball player dribbling down court. The second application is deduced from the normal principles of friction. Since the friciton is the same whether the force which presses the two surfaces together is at one point or spread over a wide area it logically follows that if the total force is spread over a wide area then the force will not be as great at any one point as it would if it were concentrated at that particular point or a small area. Again, some of the problems can be alleviated by articial means and we find equipment constructed to "spread" the force of a blow. A catcher's mitt - compared with other player's gloves - is an example of the recognition of this principle. The "armour" worn by footballers and hockey players is designed to spread the force of an impact and also to transfer it from one part of the body to another. Shoulder pads are based on the cantilever principle with the intention of transferring the impact from the point of the shoulder to the flat less vulnerable surface areas. Over-weight boxing gloves used in training are not - as many people think - a training device to make the boxer's arms stronger or so the regular gloves will feel lighter in real combat but are designed to spread the force of a punch over a wider area thus lessening the chances of injury during sessions, a fact for which managers (and sparring partners), no doubt, are truly grateful! The same fundamental principles may be applied to the body itself without artificial aids. Learning to land correctly in Judo after being thrown is a good example of how to protect a particular part of the body from injury by absorbing the effects of the impact over as wide an area as possible. The fundamental movements of a layout should be employed when sliding into a base when as much as possible of the leg, hip and back should hit the ground simultaneously. POWER IS IMPORTANT In 1932 McCloy pointed out that the power used for performance varies with the cube of the velocity. Using the formula FRICTION HELPS OR HINDERS Principles of friction are put to good use in athletics in two different ways. The first and more obvious application concerns the problem of slipping and how to provide a higher coefficient of friction. Sometimes this is achieved by artificial means such as spiked shoes or specially located floor surfaces. Adverse conditions can, however, also be overcome by a sound knowledge of equilibrium and the use of appropriate body lean, examples of which could be the angle of inclination P = FY when P power F = force in lbs. in the direction of the motion V velocity of the body in the direction of the force McCloy demonstrated the difference in power units used in running the mile at a constant rate of speed and varying rates of speed. Using hypothetical 7 �the distance in four minutes. Great runners such as Bannister and Ryun utilized pacing methods to achieve their great performances and always had some energy left for that last 100 yards dash to the line. times and rates of speeds, two tables were produced showing the amount of energy expended when a) a constant rate of speed was maintained and, b) where a varying pace was used. In each case the distance was covered in four minutes 24 seconds. The power was found by calculating the cube of the velocity for each 220 yards. LIGHT LINEMEN CAN BE EFFECTIVE There are numerous other examples that could be cited where the knowledge and application of scientific principles play a vital role. Among them are the popular circuit training programmes where an athlete performs to his maximum. He then prepares a training "Circuit" of several activities, each one calculated from his maximum performance in each activity, the whole circuit to be achieved within a certain time limit. He can then make the circuit progressively more -demanding by -gradually ln~ creasing the number of repetitions of each activity, or by cutting down the time factor for the full circuit. Periodically he will re-test himself to determine a new training circuit based upon his improved maximum level. The famous "Crimson Tide" football team of the University of Alabama are noted for usually having a smaller line than the teams against which they play. They counter this by training their players to get off their marks more quickly than their opponents and - where possible - to hit them at an angle. Work it out. If you are a lineman in football and weigh 175 lbs. while your immediate opponent weighs 200 lbs., how much faster must you be moving - if you meet head-on - to be able to hold him for those vital split seconds after the ball is snapped? At what angle should you hit him to best deflect his forward progress. Theoretical? Perhaps, why not try it out? Whether we are counting the number of push-ups a student can perform, keeping the statistics of a game, or utilizing extremely sophisticated analytical techniques in research or coaching, the importance of the relationship between the sciences in general (and mathematics in particular) and athletics cannot be too strongly stressed. May the "jocks" and the "egg-heads" long continue and expand their joint ventures. Each group has much to offer the other. TABLE BASED ON CONSTANT RATE Time for 220 yards 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 264 secs. Speed in Ft. / Sec. 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Average= 20 Velocity ~~=~ ~~d 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 64000 power units used TABLE BASED ON VARYING RATES Time for 220 yards Speed in Ft. / Sec. 1 29 22.7 2 30 32 34 36 38 37 28 22.0 20.6 19.4 18.3 17.4 17.8 23.6 3 4 5 6 7 8 264 secs. Average= 20 Velocity Cubed or Power Used 11697 10648 8742 7301 6128 5268 5640 13146 68568 power units used The significance of the study is the fact that, although both runners had the same time for the mile, the one who ran at a constant speed used approximately 7% less power. At least two advantages can be noted: first, that a runner can, by "pacing" himself, match the time of a stronger runner who does not pace himself and, second, a runner can achieve a better time using the same energy if he masters the technique of pacing. As the famous Australian coach Lydiard, has said regarding the four-minute mile, "Most runners can do 440 yards in 60 seconds; with stamina added they can keep up that pace for four times 440 yards." Try to run 110 yards in 15 seconds - not a difficult task. Thirty seconds for a 220 yard canter? - quite easy. However, if you could maintain this pace for a mile you would cover t 8 �INTERVIEW WITH THE LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY GLASSBLOWER Ken Sumpter IS EDUCATION ROULETTE? Ken: What are you actually going to do in in this magazine? Us: Well, I'm not sure. The idea is not to try to professionalize it, but to write articles for the "ordinary" students in Grade 72 and 73. Our problem always is that we tend to make things too professional. I still think YOU could write one! Ken: I've got my own view about education as such, you know, particularly at this moment. It's a difficult job to promote a University to high school students. It's a fact that there are NO JOBS at this moment in time. It's like a game of roulette to pick a subject where you are going to find work because what looks good now .... Society does not truly recognize the fact that you need broader-based people who know things, but at a lower level. Everybody THINKS as specialists do when they start off. Somewhere along the way, you want an enlightened person who is not working at a very high level, but at a good level of their own competence. It's like the sort of thing that happens on a factory floor. You get a first class charge hand and the place runs like a clock. And they think, "Gee, he's a good fellow - we must get him up", and so they promote him into management and he comes up to a level of incompetence and he's stumbling about up there and he can't manage it. That's the sort of thing that happens. Us: I'd rather talk about YOU, though. You really won't write an article? You know, people are always turned on by glassblowing. Us: . . . . may look very different in ten years' time. Ken: Ken: Right! If I was going to do something, I'd probably do Physics because .... Yes, but you know it's only because it's something like action painting ... Us: Us: .... nobody's doing it. Sure, and what's wrong with that? And, by the way, the magazine is NOT to sell Lakehead University. Ken: A sort of "Science and Technology Gallops On", I suppose. "Everything is being produced but people haven't learned to live with it." Us: I'm sure the readers would be happy to know how you got into glassblowing. Ken: Yes, well, I worked in a research lab and I used to go watch the glassblower at lunch time and he al lowed to me practice. He said, "Do you want to do it permanently?", and the boss took me on: 23 years ago! Us: Did you apprentice? Ken: Well - not really. They CALLED me "apprentice" but I didn't have any indenture papers. The glassblower, he was working two days a week for Reading University, and one of the guys he was working with took the Chair at Hobart, in Tasmania: he asked the glassblower to go with him and I took over. Us: Did you have to go through the business of six months making the centrifuge tubes? Ken: No .... Us: .... But, if nothing else, there's an energy crisis and it's going to be solved by the Physicists. Ken: The universities now have got to completely alter their old way of thinking from a pure academic point of view. Education has DEFINITELY got to be pertinent to what's needed. For example, there's no good in teaching a guy pure Physics alone. A student has to mke up his-mind EARLY. Some people should have a wide variety of subjects, but a FEW should specialize early. Us: We need both kinds .... Ken: Yes, we need a balanced program. Us: Is what we want to get across in this magazine, the fact that they've got to be thinking about what they're going to be doing much earlier than they are now? NOT EVERYBODY CAN BE AT THE TOP Ken: IT'S A SLOW PROCESS One of the problems is, I think, that we've got an overspecialized society. Ken: 9 Oh, yeah! yeah! But the thing that was REALLY difficult was pulling concentric �got a lot backed up means that you worry about it, because nobody likes to wait and people are reasonable if you're reasonable with them. I think sometimes I get a little niggled, though I try not to be. But I found the trick is, if I get a guy occasionally is being a bit unthinking or something like that or he's in a hurry for his own job, he'll bring a job in that's DIRTY. That's the thing that REALLY annoys me when I get a greasy job. I clean it when he's left it dirty; it's quicker for me to clean it than chase after him. But, I found the trick is, if I DO blast anybody, I've got to then think about it afterwards, and if I come out and very often I'm not being fair, half the time I say, "I'm wrong, I'm sorry." It makes him feel better. It makes me feel better, and it doesn't cost anything. spears* out of bits of tubing, and I remember one time when I had been at it for about six months, I used to go home and worry about it. At one time, I would think I was getting pretty good, and then I would think, look at this stuff that I was going to have to make like diffusion pumps, and I'd think I'd NEVER get it. - "Look at the trouble I get into with a little 10 millimetre spear!". Slowly and surely the mistakes and breakages got fewer until in the end it came to be automatic. It's interesting, but at the same time, you can get yourself in a terrible emotional state over it. Us: Is it true that ALL glassblowers are emotional? Ken: Well, let's say a little edgy. Us: They're real artists, aren't they? Prima donnas. Ken: Yes, I know some temperam~ntal glassblowers who ARE difficult. But when a guy comes into your shop and wants something, it's not fair that you should rip into him because you just had a bad time with the piece of glass! You can be right on the last joint of a piece of work and you made a decision about ten moves before that which left you no way out. You thought you were going to sneak through without putting a proper asbestos bung in place and you found the cork you used instead burnt away and you can't blow into the system and you can't put your finger on it because it's too hot, and you watch the molten glass dripping away in front of your eyes and you get angry with yourself because, YOU, ... YOU .. , YOU'RE SO STUPID, THAT, ... THAT ... , THAT YOU KNOW IT WAS GOING TO HAPPEN. But you took a chance because you were rushing, when you should have disciplined yourself and said "No, let's do it properly and take your time." They say, "IT'S A GOOD GUY THAT CAN GET HIMSELF OUT OF TROUBLE BUT IT'S A BETTER GUY THAT DIDN'T GET HIMSELF INTO IT IN THE Fl RST PLACE." No, it's interesting and it's fulfilling, but it can be awful shattering. One of the worst things is when you've got a lot of work banked up and people are waiting for it and you've got some intricate work that needs all your attention. You've got this lot waiting for you to do and it's PRESSING. Us: Is it increasing in volume, or is it just about steady? Ken: Well, work here, oh yes, it gallops ahead. We've got some more graduate students coming in which means more racks and gadgets. Us: What's your major job at the moment? Ken: Well, I would think catalytic sy-stems. There are a lot of people working in Catalysis. And each one has got a different system. Now Dr. Hawton has just got back from N.R.C. full of ideas and there's a real big rack going up for him. Us: You mean N.R.C.? In Ottawa? Ken: Yes, I went down to see them and get some idea of what kind of work I had to do on those systems. They get bigger and bigger. They grow like Topsy and occasionally you have to cut the lot off and start again. They get so many new pieces added that it looks like ivy on the wall L.U. HAS TO BE RELEVANT Us: As somebody who sees the Faculty from outside, what do you think is the future of the University in this district? Ken: Well, I would think that it's going to alter to some extent. I think probably work that's going on in Chemistry is pertinent to the cleanup of automobile exhaust fumes, for instance. I think the University will not survive as a University without research, but I think at the same time it's got to be appropriate to the needs of the area or the province or the country. Us: Which brings us back to what we said at the beginning. The problem of specialization, IT COSTS NOTHING TO APOLOGIZE Us: Can't you lock the door? Ken: Well, you CAN, but the mere fact that you've * Concentric spears are drawn-out thin spikes of glass tubing, - Ed. Continued on next page at bottom right. 10 �INDUSTRY AND THE TECHNICAL GRADUATE OF THE 70'S By R. G. Lightfoot, - Dryden Paper Co. Ltd. volved - the rapid outdating of the knowledge learned in the academic halls, and the ability or perhaps desire of a person who is no longer in his or her early twenties to stay abreast of rapidly changing technology. The consequences of these two factors are very interesting. Consider, for example, industry's feeling that the performance of most technical people peaks in their early thirties and declines thereafter. Th is is reflected by the fact that companies are generally forced to decrease the complexity of job assignments of technical personnel after the age of thirty. The effect is also felt in salaries, with the purely technical people peaking before the age of forty. Does this all mean that young people choosing a technical career in industry are doomed to thirty years of downhill sliding after the initial challenging and rewarding ten years? Definitely not! What it does mean is that a technical person must recognize what will happen early and take appropriate action. This can consist of constant knowledge updating through formal classes or reading, or the person can embark on a second career. The latter approach often means moving into the supervisory and managerial areas and provides a much needed reservoir of talent for industry. The technical person must recognize that whichever road he chooses, a great deal of self development will be required. It is not easy to stay technically up to date, nor is it easy to suddenly become a manager of people, money and machines. For those who make the grade, the rewards both financially and from a self-satisfaction point of view are well worthwhile. t A MEMBER OF MANAGEMENT POINTS UP A PROBLEM Today's Canadian technical school or university graduate is more knowledgeable and better trained than ever before. And indeed he should be since much of the knowledge he has gained in his technical training has only been known for 10 to 20 years and he has had the benefit of some of the best technical facilities available in the world. Industry not only is aware of the qua Iity of these graduates, but very much requires their talents in order to survive in the highly competitive business world of the 70's. The future would thus appear to be assured for the technical youth preparing to enter industry. Such, however, is not the case. Three obstacles stand in the way: the supply and demand interrelationship, technical competence and technical obsolescence. During the S0's and 60's, the vast majority of technical graduates in Canada found ready employment. Engineers in particular were in demand. It was not uncommon for each graduate to have five or more job offers, with the recruiting companies having to really court the graduate. The net result was skyrocketing starting salaries, a great influx of students into the university science courses and the large scale entry of technicians and technologists onto the Canadian job scene. Not surprisingly, the supply of technically trained people soon outstripped demand, to the point where today's university or technical school graduate not only does not have a wide job choice, but is considered fortunate to be employed in this field at all! The business slowdown in Canada in the 70's certainly hasn't helped; however, even with business running full out, there are not enough openings to provide jobs for all the technical personnel available. Interview with the glassblower, Ken Sumpter Continued not just the problem of specialization of Faculty, but people who sit on moneygranting committees, that sort of thing. INDUSTRY MORE SELECTIVE The fact that the supply of technical graduates exceeds the demand also means that industry can be more selective in its hiring and personnel retaining policies. In other words, the graduates with the most to offer regarding knowledge, personality, appearance and promotability will still be very much in demand. The bottom half of the class and those judged not able to contribute effectively will not be so fortunate. The third career obstacle facing the technical graduate is knowledge obsolescence. Two factors are in- Ken: 11 One of the problems is, I think, that there are so many other things in Un iversity that deny the freedom of people being able to look more constructively at things, such as the political atmosphere in the University. Producing research papers is an important thing, but at the same time they've got to be of some relevance: we have to do things that matter. �TWENTY-MINUTE PUZZLE 1 2 ~ 7 .")- ;I • 5 4 3 6 ·. -:or· 8 11 10 9 12 13 14 15 16 I .• II 18 17 19 20 ACROSS 1. Does his law indicate he was partial to pressure? DOWN 2. [6/ 7. 8. 10. 12. 13. 14. 17. 18. 19. 20. The place for experiments (abbreviation) [3/ The first ''T'' in T.N.T. [3/ Abbreviation for a one molar solution! [2/ A unit of radiation or the place to put antifreeze in your car (abbreviation) [3/ In the electrolysis of sodium chloride, this is where you can collect chlorine. /5/ One of the nob le gases. [ 4 / Abbreviation for a type of radiation of wavelength greater than 8000 Aapprox. [2/ A unit of electrostatics (abbreviation) [3/ A system of units (abbreviation) based on metric system. [3/ Symbol for manganese. [2/ 3. 4. Common name of the double salt of potassium sulphate and aluminium sulphate. {4/ Symbol for the first of the rare earths. [2/ Serious disease (abbreviation) or symbol for a rare earth element [2/ 5. and 6. 9. 10. 11. 15. 18. The gas for comedians? /7, 5/ Madame Curie first isolated this element. /6/ The bonding type in sodium chloride. /5/ An early method for the extraction of native gold. [3/ A unit of energy. /3/ Symbol for an element named after a continent. [2/ A prize for the best clue to 16! SOLUTION IN NEXT ISSUE ..... . 12 �REFLECTION ON LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY By Gary Human UNIVERSITY HELPFUL Let me now suggest to you the assistance I have found available to the teacher from the staff of L. U. Specifically, the staff of the Chemical I nstrumentation Lab have offered to supply my grade 13 chemistry class with all the necessary graphs and films to enhance the Instrumentation section of Chapter 20 of Toon and EIiis's "Foundation of Chemistry". Further to this, the inorganic lab under the direction of Dr. Holah has offered to run grade 13 labs dealing with experiments on pollution. Other professors have indicated an interest in assisting when and where requested. Although this article may tend to be brief in words it is intended to be rather long in praise of an excellent summer course. I thank you for your attention and consideration given to this one student's opinion. t TEACHER MEETS PROFESSORS Th is summer I had occasion to attend Lakehead University and enroll in the Chemical Instrumentation Course offered by the Science Department. Th is was a rather unique experience in that it was the first science course I had taken since graduating with a BSc in 1964. Some pertinent objective observations are herewith enclosed. The course left nothing to be desired, in that it included both the theory and practical application of the Mass Spectrometer, I.R., Spectrophotometer, N.M.R., and X-ray Diffraction. I believe that the key of the course was the emphasis on learning how to operate all the above mentioned instruments, then how to interpret the data included in the resulting graphs and films. So much for the course .... now to discuss the two intended points of this article: how does the Lakehead University Science Department approach learning processes of its students, and how can a course of this nature eventually assist the science teacher? Suffice to say that L.U.'s Science Department surrounds itself with an excellent facility and, I should imagine, a fairly substantial budget. The more important aspect of this department, however, is the staff, who for the most part are some of the finest people I have occasion to work with. Speaking from a completely personal point of view it was noted that once a student's desire to learn has been established, then there was no end to the assistance that made itself available, not only in terms of the immediate assigned instructor or assistants but also from the specialists thoughout the department who tended to show a genuine concern for the students. At this point allow me to make mention to one Dr. Tom Griffiths. On first meeting this gentleman you may be inclined to consider him to be a rather blunt, academic and extremely practical individual. However, after thoroughly enjoying a six week course with him you will realize that he is, in fact, a blunt, academic and extremely practical individual - who will stay by you for hours on end until you have satisfied yourself that you have grasped the situation! Dr. Griffiths surrounds himself with two excellent lab assistants who will bend over backwards to help you gain a full working knowledge of the instrument under study. WHISKY By George Anderson A SCOTTISH TECHNICIAN LOOKS AT SCOTCH The art of whisky distillation is practiced in several countries, notably Canada, the United States, Ireland and Scotland. However, the Scottish product has probably achieved the highest standing internationally, exports of Scotch being world wide. The name whisky (the alternative spelling of "whiskey" is used for the Irish product) is an anglicized version of the Gaelic uisge beatha, which means "water of life" ~nd this expression is believed to have originated from the Latin, aqua vitae. In the production of Scotch whisky, two somewhat different methods are employed, resulting in two types of whiskies which are known as Grain Whiskies and Malt Whiskies. For malt whisky, barley is soaked in water for two or three days, then it is spread out and kept moist and warm for a further period of eight to twelve days. The water used for the fermentation of the grain is taken from springs which have risen through granite or peat and distilleries are located close to reliable sources of such water. Under these conditions, the barley germ- (Continued on page 23) 13 �AN OPINION OF SCIENCE AT L.U. By our old friend, Anonymous [He is NOT a member of the Establishment - far from it! - Ed.] female) bring years of experience with them to the university. Unlike some other faculties at Lakehead U., Science has a large number of Canadians in its ranks. With well over 20% of the full professors native Canadians,* the Science Faculty is relatively abundant in Canadian content. [*and many other naturalized - Ed.] The backbones of the science departments are undoubtedly the technical support staff. It is the technicians who do the unspectacular chores that are so necessary for operation of the department. Technicians clean glassware, align spectrometers, tune r-f receivers, prepare instruction laboratories and sweep floors. They have an important role in research, assisting faculty members in• the preparation and operation of laboratory apparatus. The technicians at L.U. are almost as cosmopolitan as the faculty. Although most of the technicians originate from the British Isles; Finiand, Woodstock Nation and Canada are well represented. L.U. is most fortunate to have such highly skilled individuals choose Thunder Bay as their home. A university may have highly rated professors and technicians but without the proper facilities, quality science instruction and research cannot be obtained. Lakehead U. is slowly acquiring the best of modern research tools available as well as a full complement of student labware. The Science Department is now located in the recently completed Centennial Building. With its well lit interiors, conveniently arranged laboratories and spacious hallways, the Centennial Building has proved to be a tribute to its designers. The amount of scientific equipment at Lakehead U. is enormous. There are many varieties of spectrometers, including a mass spectrometer. As well as the usual large numbers of conventional light microscopes, there is a Phillips High Resolution Electron Microscope. Large numbers and forms of vacuum systems can be found throughout the building, many capable of reaching 10- 10 Torr. Chemistry has excel lent chromatagraph setups. Important support facilities such as the glass blowing 1·ab, lntrumentation's electronic diagnostic equipment, a competent machine shop, as well as various photographic darkrooms are dispersed throughout the building. For its size, Lakehead University's Science Department is quite sufficiently stocked with the required apparatus needed in modern science. L.U. SCIENTISTS AND TECHNICIANS "GOOD" ON THE WHOLE The general concensus is that one must allot a certain quota of one's time and energy to the earnings of one's living. The alternatives are very grim; being perhaps prison, drug addiction, or maybe politics! With that in mind, most citizens spend a portion of their day at the corporation or institution of their choice. I had developed a keen interest in science on the day I got 92% in physics without studying, so when my day of decision came I took the path of least resistance. Having been a member of Lakehead University's science community for approximately three years now, I have had time to consider, both qualitativley and quantitatively, the relative importance of Lakehead University's Science Faculty. Hereforth lie some of my impressions. Lakehead U., like all other institutions, has a book of rules that is necessary for its operation in the manner it does. The constitution seems to imply a form of democracy, but as usual the principles work for the principals. The University is divided into three or four camps, being termed Faculties in this case, with the President as supreme commander. And of course there is the beaureaucracy to keep everything businesslike. Since L.U. evolved from a technical school, it is not surprising that science has played an integral part in the development of the university. With the addition of the Centennial Building in 1969, the Science Departments gained full laboratory facilities for research and student instruction. Science now had some excellent research apparatus and a skilled technical support staff to complement the highly qualified teaching staff. TECHNICAL STAFF ARE AS IMPORTANT AS FACULTY MEMBERS A look at the credentials of members of the science faculty shows them to be an impressive group. They have long lists of degrees from MIT, Glasgow, London, Toronto and Iowa. Some of these scientists have come from as far as Texas, from Ireland al"ld London, from Vienna and Geneva and from Newfoundland to join the Faculty of Science at Lakehead U. All of these men and women (women seem to be in the minority, with only approximately 1.88% of the faculty being 14 �RESEARCH IS LOCALLY ORIENTED A multitude of research projects are being conducted on these machines at L.U. The chemistry department currently is conducting a co-ordinated study of catalysts from which industrialists may benefit greatly. This project involves a large number research tools including the mass spectrometer, the electron microscope and a number of chromatographs. An interesting study is being staged by Lakehead University biologists on mineral uptake in the leafs of vegetation located near mining areas. Information gathered here may be of significant interest to prospectors in their efforts to develop Northern Ontario. Geology, working closely with the local mining business, is slowly obtaining information on the structure of the bottom of Lake Superior, using machines such as rock crushers and x-ray spectrometer. Solid state research is conducted by some members of the physics department, requiring sophisticated electronic apparatus. The electronic industry has a constant need for new discoveries in this field. Modern business is using complex mathematical methods increasingly everyday. Mathematicians at L.U. have a large I.B.M. computer at their disposal for their formulations. Last but not least are the students which actually are the reason for the existence of Lakehead University. Students come to L.U. from as far west as Hong Kong; from Nova Scotia, Texas and Kenora. Hundreds of undergraduates are processed by the Science Department annually. Once processed, science graduates then enter the fields of opportunity that are available to science graduates in Canada. A few of the more competent graduates are absorbed into one of the master programs at Lakehead University. For the next few years they are initiated into the field of scientific research as they work in the labs till late at night, tutor students and assist professors in their paper production. structure. My job requires a bit of skill and is quite satisfying at times. The impression that L.U. has made on me so far is that with its feudal power structure it compares quite favorably with other institutions of its size and rank. The Science Departments, I feel, especially chemistry, are of excellent quality. Chemistry graduates have done well at other universities. Faculty members that I am acquainted with are pretty good people, most work fairly hard, some are conducting some interesting research. The technicians are almost totally a good lot. Lakehead University is entering a new period under the leadership of newly appointed president Dr. Booth. Since Dr. Booth is a respected practicing scientist, Lakehead University's Science Department can look forward to a bright future. I personally am of the opinion that if one must have a science degree then one might as well take it at L.U. t SMALL UNIVERSITY ADVANTAGEOUS One of the advantages of a small university like L.U. is the accessability of expensive science apparatus, the use of which is so necessary to modern research. Undergraduates become acquainted with such instruments as the electron microscope as early as the third year. The use of spectrometers such as the Infra-Red Spectrophotometer are important in chemistry instruction from the second year on. Graduate students have almost free access to most research apparatus as well as the skills of countless technicians. This is the environment that I enter at nine and leave at five. I am positioned rather low in the 15 �HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS ASSESS BLEACHES has a stock sulution from which he can take a number of 25 ml portions for titration until consistent results are obtained. To each portion is added about 10 ml of dilute acetic acid and an excess of about 1 - 2 gm of potassium iodide. Most of the students recognize the brown colour of iodine. (l 2 ) as it is formed. The quantity of 12 that has been oxidized from the iodide ion is proportional to the amount of available chlorine. The last step in the analysis is to measure the amount of 12 by reducing it back to 1- using a suitable reducing agent of accurably known strength, such as 0.1 molar sodium thiosulfate. Students from Northwestern Ontario High Schools have been doing their own consumer research in the University's chemistry department. Under the expert guidance of Dr. Holah, they have been checking up on the manufacturers of laundry bleach. The active bleaching agent, as the bottle labels state, is sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), usually in the form of a 5% solution. The strength of a bleaching solution may also be expressed as the amount of "available chlorine", which is the amount of chlorine which can be "liberated" from the solution by simple chemical processes. It's the chlorine that does the job. The students are provided with bottles of Javex, White Magic, French Maid, A & P and so on. They find three things: - - 2S 2 0 3 1) The percentage of NaOCl, which is compared with the manufacturer's figure on the bottle; 2) The percentage of "available chlorine", which is also compared with the manufacturer's figure; 3) What every housewife is interested in - the "Best Buy.'' From the volume of the bottle, the price and the percentages, the student evaluates the order of bleaching value for dollar spent. 12 2S 2 0 3 For the chemistry buffs, here is the prescription prepared by Dr. Holah. THE ASSESSMENT OF BLEACHES By Dave Holah The basic chemistry involved is the fact that the hypochlorite ion is a good oxidizing agent in dilute acid solutions, and will oxidize iodide ion to iodine. + 2H+ + Cl 21 + 12 ➔ S406 ➔ 21 =+ 12 ➔ = S406 = + 21- BLUE COLOUR IS THE KEY He therefore can titrate the iodine solution with thiosulfate and watch the brown 12 colour slowly fade. Most of the students are familiar with the intense blue colour formed by the interaction of 12 and starch, and this is used to mark the end point of the titration. Thus, when most of the brown 12 has been reduced and the solution is a pale yellow colour, a few drops of starch solution are added to give the deep blue colour. The thiosulfate addition is continued slowly until very suddenly, within one drop, the blue colour (and hence the 12 ) is discharged and the solution becomes perfectly clear. One of the problems is that the students are often confused about which solutions must be pipetted accurately and which can be handled in a much more casual manner with a crude measuring cylinder, and it is not until the student understands the chemical reactions that this point is made clear. The experiment is popular with the students, since it rel"ates some of their school chemistry (1 2 -starch) with consumer products, and ends with a result that may be of use to them (or their parents) in terms of deciding which bleach to purchase. It also lets them use analytical equipment which most of them have not touched in the school. The answer? Most students agree that _ _ __ is the best. We deliberately leave you guessing - if you want to know the answer, ask somebody who has done it! (Or ask Dr. Holah to let you do it for yourself). OCl = + H20 The student begins by pipetting 10 ml of bleach (usually directly into his mouth at the first attempt)* and diluting to 250 ml with distilled water. He then * It's not dangerous - just unpleasant. 16 �THE MYSTICAL WOLF By George Ozburn their food supply. To cry wolf then would suggest that the mighty deer stalker has spent too much time in the concrete jungle and lost his ability to read the nature's sign boards. A recent study of the Isle Roy ale wolf suggests that the wolves appear to keep the moose herd within its food supply, cull undesirable individuals such as the old and the parasitized; and also, to stimulate reproduction. On this island ecosystem, the wolves will probably remain in a very dynamic equilibrium due to little intervention by man. The city dweller should be overjoyed if in some outward bound movement, country is reached where the eerie howl of a wolf may be heard in the stillness of the night. There might then still be a hope of your seeing one of these beautifully graceful creatures. t OZBURN KNOWS HIS WOLVES Have you ever seen a wolf? Perhaps if you have travelled the Algonquin Park trails, the Temogami Lake or Quetico area, you have heard one. My first experience with them was near Bear Island on Temogami Lake while camping. During two consecutive nights they howled outside our lean-to. In the early morning we looked carefully trying to establish where they really were, but they didn't even leave a track. My next contact was some years later - with their tracks - fresh on new fallen snow. I have often thought back to those first wolf tracks which my companion assured me were those of the terrible wolf. We own huskies and after a few years of mushing, one sees many foot prints of various shapes, any of them could be those of a wolf. Finally while winter fishing on a lonely lake, I saw my first live wolf in the wild. We spent a glorious half hour observing these graceful creatures playing, romping after one another, chasing their tails; but are they shy! They caught wind of us as we cautiously stalked them along the shoreline and suddenly were gone like ghosts. From the air in the winter they are very easy to spot. Flying just at dawn on a clear frosty morning it's easy to spot a set of tracks and follow. Often they are returning along the edge of a frozen waterway after a night's foraging. Frequently they are even found quite close to town. They are often quite defenseless. The -snow in the bush is deep and soft so they try to outrun the plane on the hard pack of the lake. It's no wonder so many people take advantage of them and hunt them this way. These people really aren't hunters. The late Jack Miner for all his wonderful work with bird conservation was very short sighted about nature's wonderful biological selection force, the wolf. He reportedly sighted them as cold blooded killers, destroying deer herds. Granted in some parts of the country where snows are frequently very heavy, the depth of snow serves the same function. When deer hunting falls off, we need a scrapegoat. Since the average city dweller never sees the great outdoors in the mid winter and doesn't realize the other hardships, he promptly blames the wolf. The result? These predators are called "varmint". Yet, predators cannot become too abundant. They can never increase beyond the limits set by availability of food. If they are very abundant. then so must be l7 �THE FIFTH WHEEL By Charles Mallard ENGINE OUTPUT COMPARED WITH FACT ORY RA Tl NG The Plymouth Cricket, an English built import, when introduced to the North American continent, was assigned a very optimistic horsepower rating. The 1972 models have since been defactored to a more realistic power rating and a more powerful motor has been added as an option. It was my intent to calculate the engine output of my car and make a comparison ~etween the factory ratings. The motor could then have been modified and more comparisons made. The construction of the fifth wheel was simple, although time consuming. It consisted essentially of an aluminum Y shaped frame and a 26" bicycle wheel upon which three magnets were attached. As the wheel rotates, the magnets pass a reed switch mounted on the frame. The switch opens and closes sending pulses (supplied by a flashlight battery) to the tape recorder. The number of pulses per second is proportional to the car's speed, e.g., 30 pulse/sec = 40 mph. The frequency of the pulses is obtained from the tape recording which is fed into a pulse counter. The graph is then plotted by hand. GIRLS OR CARS? Last year the second year students taking Dr. Hart's mechanical physics course 2e4 were allowed to conduct an experiment of their own choice. The nature of the experiment was entirely up to the students and materials needed would be provided, on condition that the students construct the necessary equipment themselves if it were not readily available. Unfortunately, the experiment had to be designed with some basic physics involved, so I had to rule out the plan to interview every beautiful woman in Thunder Bay and compile a very comprehensive black book for myself. I still can't understand why Dr. Hart couldn't see the physical aspects of such an experiment, but be that as it may, I elected to change the concept of the experiment entirely and construct a "fifth wheel" for my car. The fifth wheel is literally, as its name implies, a fifth wheel which is towed at the rear of a vehicle. It is, in essence, an electric speedometer from which a record of the vehicle's speed may be recorded. It is electronic in nature and does not have the errors common to mechanical devices such as a car speedometer. However, the most advantageous aspect of such an instrument is that the car's speed may be recorded as a function of time by feeding the data into a portable casette tape recorder. There is no need to use a stop watch and comments can be recorded directly onto the same tape. The basic idea to construct such an instrument arose from my keen interest in the technical aspects of automobiles and my desire to evaluate the performance of my 1971 Plymouth Cricket. Fifth wheels are used extensively for road testing cars (acceleration and braking capabilities) and the results are published in numerous car magazines. However, to my knowledge, no such test has been carried out on this particular car. I could therefore obtain this data first hand with such an instrument. It is also possible, by making use of a few simple laws of physics and elementary mathematics to obtain more useful data such as drag (wind and rolling resistance) versus car speed, and rear wheel brake horsepower and torque as a function of engine rpm. Such data would enable the calculation of theoretical top speed and optimum rpm shift point in each gear. A graph could be constructed which indicates the rear wheel horsepower required to maintain the car at any given speed and it could be extrapolated or an equation devised to show how much of an increase in HP is required to produce an increase in top speed and/or acceleration. NOT ALL UNDERGRADUATES EXPERIMENTS BORING Unfortunately, because of poor magnet alignment and improper tire balance, we were unable to obtain consistent readings above 50 mph. The arrangement of the magnets was changed so that we could use two magnets and two reed switches and allow more precise alignment of the magnet. This setup has not yet been tested and therefore the desired data have not been obtained. However, the fifth wheel doe~ work (hopefully above 50 mph now) and with a fair degree of accuracy (+ 1 mph). The entire project cost very little and although the aims of the experiment have not been fulfilled completely the results thus far are very rewarding. It just goes to prove that not all experiments are boring. 18 �LIBERAL SCIENCE PROGRAM It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of science in today's careening technological world. Science is the only branch of human enquiry which applies itself to the systematic observation and interpretation of our physical environment. As such, science provides a fountain of well-defined data upon which to base important judgements which must be made now if we are to survive. The influence of science and technology upon modern man staggers the imagination. And yet, there have been very few systematic attempts to bring th is home to future teachers, legislators and decisionmakers. The Liberal Science Program aims at giving such people a broad view of science, rather than producing professional scientists. The program brings science out of the confines of the laboratory in order to explain its effects upon man and his environment, and also to explore ways in which science can influence our daily lives for the better. Students entering the Liberal Science Program must have successfully completed Grade 13. But science and mathematics are not prerequisite, as they are for other programs in the F acuity of Science. Requirements include a mature mind and a desire to understand the role of science. Liberal Science students may concentrate on any Arts subjects to meet the requirements of the program. Indeed, it is essentially designed to provide a broad background in science study for students specializing in the social sciences, humanities, or education. It is extremely flexible, allowing easy transfer in and out of the program from other Arts and Science programs. In addition to at least three subjects from the Faculty of Science and up to seven from the Facuity of Arts, the three-year Liberal Science Degree Program requires at least five of the following courses: A brief treatment of the physical features of the Earth is followed by an examination of the interrelations among organisms and between organisms and their environment. Questions of conservation, pollution, and the future of man are discussed at length. L.S. 103 Chemistry and Man - This is a survey of those aspects of chemistry which affect our lives every day. The material will include a general historical introduction. Following this, a basic understanding will be provided for such popular activities as photography, wine-making and pottery. Also, such topics as the energy crisis, birth control, pollution, physical and mental health, the use and misuse of drugs will be discussed from a chemical viewpoint. L.S. 104 The Physical Nature of the Earth - The general physical and chemical principles relating to the origin and development of the Earth are the main focus of this course. Particular concerns include the external and internal processes which are constantly forming and deforming the Earth's crust, laboratory work in the mineralogy and petrography of the principal rock types, the identification and use of fossils as indicators of relative time, and the interpretation of geological maps. L.S. 105 Contemporary Physical Thought Important scientific literature is often ignored because its language is too technical or mathematical for the general reader. This course purposes to interpret such writings to promote understanding in the theories of the Universe and its creation, in the laws of physical science, and in recent scientific thought. Proficiency in mathematics is not required. L.S. 107 Mathematics - the Analytical Tool of Science - Mathematics has always been indispensable in the formulation of theories and the solution of problems, both in the traditional disciplines and in the newer social sciences. This course outlines the way in which the "mathematical method" has influenced the study and application of science throughout its history. L.S. 100 Science and Man - The profound influence of science on the individual and society is the central focus of th is course. The effects of great experiments and theories on the development of civilization are studied in detail. The relationships between science, technology, philosophy and politics are identified and discussed. Also, the role of science in determining the way we think and act is probed as far as possible. L.S. 101 Science in an Age of Machines - The explosive development of technology has led to qualitative changes in the nature of the Earth. This course studies the effects of manipulative techniques on man's environment. L.S. 108 Astronomy - This course is designed to acquaint the student with the principal features of the Solar system, our Galaxy, and the known Universe. The student will make observations of the moon, planets and stars, plot their movements and deduce some of their properties. Photographs from observatories will supplement the student's observations. No previous background in physics or mathematics is required. L.S. 102 Natural Science - Th is course aims at a unified understanding of the basic principals of nature. 19 �KEN SUMPTER "Education has DEFINITELY got to be pertinent" "By such methods of dating .... !" �~ DR. HOLAH . ... AND FRIENDS "Ask him .... to let you do it for yourself!" DR. OZBURN "when deer hunting falls off, we need a scapegoat" �A STUDENT'S VIEW OF THE LIBERAL SCIENCE PROGRAM By Gloria McNeil! Science, Chemistry and Man, Astronomy and Problems in Pollution will do. The Liberal Science programs offers the freshman university student a chance to experience a wide spectrum of courses without being committed to one specific discipline. If upon deciding that he prefers one subject over others, he may concentrate in that field in subsequent years. In fact, the Liberal Science program is designed such that "the student after first or second year would be able to transfer into a major or honours program in Science or Arts", as stated on page 139 in the 1972-1973 Lakehead University Calendar. This eliminates the problem of choosing a specific discipline for the uncertain firstyear student. A UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY? The Liberal Science program offers a unique opportunity for different sectors of the community. It gives teachers, politicians, housewives, and generally all persons interested in taking university courses for enjoyment, the chance to experience fields of study they would normally not come in contact with (or desire to come in contact with!} Teachers who have indulged in Liberal Science courses have a greatly enriched reservoir of knowledge to draw upon when dealing with their students. This aspect is most important to the public school teacher for he, by himself, must deliver to a group of thirty or more youngsters a general education. Spelling, literature, grammar, arithmetic and reading do not suffice, for these will equip the students with only the essentials of an education. Children must know more about this world in which they live, grow, work and play; and it is up to their teachers to make sure that they do. Thus, it is wise for the teacher who is in pursuit of his university degree to major in Liberal Science rather than narrow his spectrum of knowledge by majoring in a specific subject. By choosing the Liberal Science program as his area of study, he will acquire a general education in the realm of both arts and science. Not only he, himself, but all his students will benefit. THERE ARE SOME SNAGS Despite its apparent benefits, the Liberal Science program contains a number of drawbacks as well. Of the nine courses calendared as Liberal Science courses, five are in actuality courses which have been drawn from other departments and renamed as Liberal Science courses! Hence, these courses do not cater to the Liberal Science student (as for instance, an English course would cater to a student who is an English major}. Rather, these courses are geared towards those students who intend to major in the related discipline. For example, LS 104 - The Physical Nature of the Earth - is merely Geology 1 a6 which is the first-year geology course for specialist students who wish to continue in the field of Geology. The Liberal Science student, however, would mistakenly think this course to be geared towards himself, since it is calendared as LS 104. No separate Liberal Science Department exists. Therefore a lack of continuity is to be expected within the "non-department". The professors who teach Liberal Science courses have been drawn from other departments, and they do not relate to themselves as Liberal Science professors, but rather they see themselves as professors from their respective areas of study. To be efficient and therefore beneficial to the student, it would be desirable if all Liberal Science professors were to be located in adjoining offices. This would help to remove the amorphous identity of Liberal Science and would allow for easy student-faculty contact. The Liberal Science program as it stands now is a program without an identity but, on the other POLITICIANS AND VOTING PUBLIC SHOULD UNDERSTAND SCIENCE Politicians and the voting public, too, will benefit if they choose to study within the Liberal Science program. It is the politicians who decide what laws might aid the community and it is the voting publicthat is, the residents of the community - who decide whether or not these proposed laws are relevant. Such contemporary problems as drug and alcohol abuse, air land and water pollution, the necessity for and goals of space probes, improper use of our land and natural resources, and many others must be dealt with. But how can men who in actual fact know nothing of the causes and consequences of these problems propose laws which will solve them? And, how can the public vote intelligently on these issues when they, too, know just as little? It is most necessary for politicians and the voters to acquire a general knowledge about these contemporary issues and this is what Liberal Science courses such as Science and Man, Natural 22 �barley, a method of drying unique to Scotch whisky. The dried barley is ~ext infused with hot water, cooled, fermented with yeast for several days and then distilled twice in large copper stills. Part of the second distillation is collected and matured. hand, a program with much potential. Perhaps, once more courses are developed which are truly and only Liberal Science courses, and once its professors establish themselves as belonging to a new Department, then students will be able to acknowledge its existence. At present a great number of Lakehead Unviersity students do not even know that such a department and program exists, while even those that are aware know nothing about it. SMOKE AND WATER PRODUCE FLAVOUR Two factors are generally regarded as being responsible for the distinctive flavour of Scotch whisky the peat smoke and the water. Grain whisky is produced by a similar process to that described for malt whisky, except that a mixture of barley and corn is used and the distillation is a continuous one. Other whiskies also use a mixture of grains. Most brands of Scotch sold are blends of: grain and malt whiskies, some blenders say they use "upwards of 40'' whiskies from different areas of Scotland to achieve their desired end. Scotch is matured in oak casts (which used to be old sherry casks) for a minimum period of three years, although somewhiskiesmay be left to mature for more than ten years. In the cask, changes take place in the minor constituents of the liquor. Some of the acids and alcohols present will combine to increase the ester content while, because of the porous nature of the cask, air can reach the liquor and combine with certain alcohols to form aldehydes. Tannin and furfural (another aldehyde) may be extracted from the wood of the cask. Although these substances are present in only small quantities, they nevertheless determine to a significant degree the final flavour of all distilled liquors. The predominant constituents of all whiskies are of course ethyl alcohol and water, but the differences found in the important minor components are interesting to compare. These figures are of course approximate and vary with brand. CONTENT IS VERY GOOD However, the program content is very good, for it ensures that students will attain a general education that has a strong base in science. The scienceorientated Liberal Science courses, both those unique to the Liberal Science program and those borrowed from other departments, teach us more about the nature of our universe, our world and life itself. Meanwhile the arts-orientated Liberal Science courses further our knowledge of ourselves. There should be more courses like LS 109 Problems in Pollution - which deal with contemporary problems. These courses could be instructed by using social science and scientific principles to explain the causes and the impact the problems are having. Many guest lecturers are available in Thunder Bay who could supplement the courses. For example, spokesmen from the Ontario Water Resources Commission could speak on water pollution; spokesmen from the Lands and Forests could speak on problems in our timberlands and forest mammals; spokesmen from the Health and Community Information Centre could speak on social problems. These guest lecturers would thus be able to link the information that a student receives in his courses to situations in the real world outside. We must ensure, however, that any new Liberal Science courses developed are developed for the needs of the Liberal Science students. Apart from its deficiencies, the Liberal Science program would become a highly valuable department within the university and the community at large. Grams I 100 litres at 100 proof Canadian Scotch Blended Blended *Fusel Oils t [ Many of Gloria's criticisms have been acted upon, and we are grateful to her for making them - Ed./ 60 150 Acids 20 15 70 Ester 10 20 60 Aldehydes 3 10 5 7 10 50 20 100 10 50 130 200 Furfural Tannin Total Solids WHISKY - Continued from page 73. Straitht Bour on 200 *Fusel oils are liquids produced during fermentation and are mainly composed of amyl alcohols along with some lower alcohols. inates and the starches are converted by the action of enzymes into fermentable sugars. When the sprouts on the barley are about three-quarters of an inch long, this stage is complete and the -grain is collected and spread out on screens over a peat fire to dry. The peat smoke can make direct contact with the malted Whisky is, of course, an intoxicant. The word "intoxicant" comes from the Greek toxican, meaning poison (especially for arrow tips!) It's insidious stuff, and those fuse/ oils can play the very devil with the brain. ) (Editor's note: 23 �THE REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLUE GOURAMI By John H. Kelleher RESULTS MORE STIMULATING TO STUDENTS LOVING FISH PROVIDE CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS LESSON Ethology, which is the biological study of animal behaviour, offers a wide variety of research activities. Included in this research is the study of the reproductive behaviour of fish. Such a study should capture the imagination and enthusiasm of many students from the elementary to the college level. Some students may find themselves capable of not only reading the current research literature in Ethoiogy but also of contributing to it. While most ethological studies take place outdoors, there is some work that can be done indoors. In the latter case, the reproductive behaviour of fish could easily be studied as most schools have the required equipment. The blue gourami were chosen for this investigation because they are available locally, are inexpensive, easy to keep, and have been reported in the literature Rubbing ~g Spawning TOTAL Observed 13 10 12 35 Miller 42 50 46 138 Expected (see App)j 11 13 12 36 On the basis of the above data, for 2 df and a chi-square value of 1.05 (see Appendix), the differences between observed and expected are not significant at the .05 level. That is, there are more than 5 chances in 100 that the above differences could be accounted for by chance alone. The 35 observations that I made were reported during one mating session, so I assumed the 1 38 observations of Miller were based on at least three mating sessions. Therefore, it would appear that the observations of more than one mating session did not yield results that were significantly different. In a chi-square analysis the researcher compares the observed results to the expected or chance results. For example, in the present study the chisquare is generally illustrated by reference to one of Mendel's experiments on the colour and shape of pea seeds. However, it was my experience that most students were not impressed with the application of the chi-square test to the results of Mendel's experiments. Therefore, the present study might help, but is not limited to, the instructor who is looking for supplementary material on the topic of chi-square. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR COMPARED The purpose of this study was to find out if there was any significant difference between my observations of blue gourami reporductive behaviour and similar observations reported by Mill er (1964) 1 . The latter observations served as the basis for calculating the expected res~lts (See Appendix on page 26) Two large blue gouramis were placed in a 20 gallon (U.S.) tank. In addition, the aquarium had a gravel bottom, a few mystery snails, assorted aquatic plants and a cup. The cup was left in one corner of the tank in order to provide a hiding place for the female during reproduction. The fish were fed a varied diet twice a day. The water temperature was kept at 80° ± 2° F. Room and aquarium lighting automatically turned on and off providing a 15 hour photo-period. In order to avoid ambiguity, I chose only three clearly defined stages of reproductive behaviour: rubbing, clasping, and spawning. For pictures of each of these stages the reader is referred to the research reported by Mi Iler. (Continued on page 28) Miller, R.S. Studies on the social behavior of the blue gourami, Trichogaster trichopterus (Pisces, Belontiidae), 1964, Copeia, No. 3, 469-496. 24 �FROM HIGH SCHOOL ON: A CASE FOR BIOLOGY By Claude Garton is a broad one and full of wonder. Whatever the animal, if we get to know more about it, we feel a fellowship that is part of a good life. Genetics js a science that has a special appeal to many. It is the study of inheritance. No two individuals of any species are exactly alike. Why so many similarities? In the past century, great advances have been made in this field. We even read that we are on the way to being able to create life. If you wish to specialize there are many subfields in Biology: ornithology, entomology, morphology, and enough -ologies to fill several pages. It is hoped you will delve into some of these in your studies, in school or out. Applied biology is a growing field. For example, a real problem today is pollution. Its correction and prevention can come about only if all of us know and observe the basic laws of ecology. Soclology, people living together, is only a part of ecology, all things living and thriving together. Whether we become a doctor, salesman, a factory worker or whatever, we can become a better, happier person if we know the living things around us. For those who are about to go on to further studies, Biology should be part of them. No matter what your chosen field, it can help you if only as an escape, a hobby. And do remember reading about living things, hearing about them, seeing them in pictures is no substitute for the real thing. To get out and live with them is to make them truly a part of your life. People, animals, plants, they are our heritage. t LIFE CAN BE ENJOYABLE All living is a challenge. Nature has no room for loser,: sooner or later the unfit are discarded what about you? Man, a social animal, has created a complicated pattern for living: where will you fit in? How can you have a happy, rewarding future as an essential part of humanity, working with those forces that lead us forward and, we hope, upward? Too often we blame the past generations for errors, but no one can undo the events of yesterday. Some mistakes are irreparable and all we can do is make today better so that tomorrow will give us fewer regrets. Nor can we escape from the technical society. No longer can one get away into the wilderness and live his own life cut off from other people, as we sometimes wish to. The more one learns about life and living, the more one can enjoy it, and as we explore the biological sciences doors are opened that give a deeper meaning to our everyday life. Biology, the study of life and living, does not have all the answers, and it never will. But it can help you, an individual, fit into living, so that in the fifty-odd years ahead, you become cognizant of self, and in sympathy w.ith people and the living world around you. A young gas station attendant, a senior high school student, remarked to me this past summer. "I wish I had the chance to learn about plants and animals. I'd like to go into biology." I pointed out to him although Biology is not particularly recommended as a career it does open the way to a deeper, fuller understanding of one's environment, for an appreciation of how natural things live and react can help us to live better in the natural environment we too are part of. One obvious aspect of the immediacy of Biology is the concern for plants that produce a major part of our food supply. Farmers, gardeners, nursery men need to "know about plants". BIOLOGY HAS MANY BRANCHES Zoology, the science of animal study, gives us an insight into the animal world, our world too: man may be divine, but he is also an animal. Birds, their songs, their migrations, the many facets of their lives are fascinating subjects. When a moth bumps against a lighted window of a late evening, when a butterfly sips nectar from a flower, our interest is aroused. Entomology, the study of insects, 25 ' �CLUES Across 1. (12,5) 9. (3) 10. (5) 12. {3) 13. (5) 14. (5) 16. (5) 18. (5) 19. 21. 22. 24. 25. 27. (7) (5) (5) (4) (3) (4) The distance from earth to sun is one of these See 2 down Quadratic solutions useful to plants An unknown angle - the 21st Greek letter Einstein ... a unified field theory just before he died The reflectivity of a fabric Viscera and other bits When fruits do so, there is a synthesis of fructose The father of sterilization A high-pressure man Interference used by a piano tuner Gas for a sign at no. 10 A current measure 15 over 30 42. Down 1. {6,3,8) 2. (3) 3. (5) 4. (4) 5. (4) 6. (5) 7. (3) 8. {70, 7) 10. (5) 11. (5) 13. (5) 15. (5) 17. (4) 19. (7) 20. (7) 21. (5) 28. 29. 30. 32. 34. 35. (4) (4) (4) (3) (4) (4) 37. 38. 39. 41. 44. (4) (7) (5) (5) (5) 45. (3) 47. (5) 48. (3) 49. (7, A leading actor in the night sky A bitter liliaceous genus Phragmites communis in a clarinet The cry of the genus Corvus Acid magnesium silicate The useless male of a hymenopterous or human species A usually fast ungulate What the fruit does to the pip Rough points of lands A mechanical man A chair carried on two poles which had a great influence on 19 across A charge-carrier A large ungulate with a short elephant-like trunk Archimedes lived long this 7OJ The powers of e that equal the numbers in question /5/ # Equal mechanical concepts that are always mutually contrary If 2 across were to run down, it would begin to 2 down sideways (viz: precession)! An auricular window When new, I am nearly black, but the older I get, the more I shine until I'm full More than one Fe/is Kelp is a plant found here, relative to the surface Not exactly Maxwell's daemon, but a close relative Elementary laboratories provide basic skills in their use A palindromic electronic device A low woody plant (or a drink) The area drained by a river and its tributaries The position of fluorine in the table of elements The leaf-bearing axis of a plant The fifth member of the methane series Do chemists use them to answer back? A geological structure associated with salt and oil is sometimes this 23. (5) 25. {3) 26. (3) 31. (5) 33. (4) 34. (5) 36. (5) 37. (5) 40. (5) 41. (5) 43. (4) 44. (4) 46. (3) 48. (3) Lactuca sativa often forms the main part of this green dish A spark between carbons A foot of one 5 down Chemicals of current controversy Jelly for growing "bugs" A projection that fits a mortice Parliament has power to make laws, e.g., about 31 down To cut off The track of four 26 downs In a circle, we all measure the same The rank of Bertrand Russell (he was third) To produce related frequencies with the vocal chords A hard dry indehiscent fruit formed from a syncarpous gynaeceum; and an eccentric Fraxinus excelsior; and what is left after it is burnt Solution in next issue (or in desperation, Phone: 807 - 345-2121, Extension 529) 26 �CRYPTIC CROSSWORD NO TRICKS, NO ANAGRAMS. AN ADVANCED CLASS PROJECT MAYBE? 1 2 3 6 27 7 8 �COMPUTER CENTRE TOURS Academic use of the computer slows down during April, May and June - this is convenient for the many groups of visitors who come at this time. Computer Centre tours are given to high school, pub Iic school and any other groups who wish to come. In addition, for the last two years a typewriter terminal has been circulated through a number of Thunder Bay High Schools - spending a week or two weeks in each. Connected to the Computer by telephone this terminal gives students an opportunity to use the university APL system in the school environment. Their teachers have been making good instructional use of the system. 3. Watch that there is a symbolic solution followed by the tabulation of data. A problem without symbolic solution can receive no more than 60% of the marks remaining after (1) and (2) . 4. Watch the numerical solution for powers of 10, irrational numbers, and wrong units. An answer like 18,000,000 is not acceptable, because it does not specify the number of significant figures. An answer like 18,000,000 ± 2% is acceptable. 5. Never deduct a mark without making a comment. However brief, make a comment. DO NOT USE! or ? on their own. ACADEMIC COMPUTER SERVICES ACADEMIC USER'S GUIDE THE BLUE GOURAMI The Academic User's Guide has been updated. Last year due to budget restrictions one copy only was sent to each department. This proved unsatisfactory in that many of these copies got lost and never surfaced again. This year all academic users will get a copy. (Continued from page 24) APPENDIX A. 42 1. Rubbing CONSULTATION SERVICE Users (or non-users) requiring advice or information related to academic usage of the computer should contact the manager of Academic Computer Services (Mr. Watson, Ext. 383, Room MB1040} between the hours of 9:00 a.m. - 12:00 noon, 1:00 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. Mr. Davis (Ext. 316, Room MB1039} is also available for consultation during the same times. X 35 11 X 35 13 X 35 12 ~ 2. Clasping 50 T38"" 46 3. Spawning 138 B. Chi Square ( Observed • Expected) 2 1. Rubbing (13-11) 2 11 0.36 2. Clasping (10 • 13) 2 _ 1_3 _ _ 0.69 3. Spawning (12 • 12) 2 12 0.00 Expected A DOCUMENT FOUND IN A COPPER CYLINDER PHYSICS RULES FOR MARKERS 1. Expected x2 It is necessary that the solution to a problem contain all connecting steps, written in more or less comple'te English. No problem without these steps can receive more than 60%. C. d f .36 + .69 .00 + degrees of freedom (Rows - 1) X (Columns - 1) (2 - 1) X (3 - 1) 2 2. 1.05 A diagram must appear in all problems. No problem without a diagram can receive more than 60% of the marks remaining after (1 }. The End. 28 �LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE serving Northwestern Ontario Vol. II No.2 29 �EDITORIAL HINTS FOR BEGINNING TEACHERS By W. Eames It is in one sense a sad occasion to see the Lakehead University Mathematics Gazette (serving Northwestern Ontario)swallowed up in a more comprehensive publication. On the other hand, it has truly been a pleasure to see the demand for it grow, and to hear expressions of gratitude from those who have been kind enough to call it useful. We will continue to be available to assist your new editor, Dr. Hart, in every way possible, and we should like to take this opportunity to exhort our readers to continue sending in articles just as before. Our thanks go out to those who have generously contributed their articles, and time, in past issues. When Professor Black told me that I would be expected to offer you suggestions - helpful hints he calls them - on the teaching of Mathematics, my first impulse was to leave town. I had no suggestions whatsoever, other than the obvious ones like "don't assign any problems you can't do" and "when you haven't had time to prepare a lesson, give a test". But you are as familiar with these strategems as I am, so I asked my first year class here to help me. I asked them for any suggestions they might have regarding the teaching of Mathematics in High School; in my article I will simply pass these suggestions on and comment on them. Several students mentioned the "different terminology" used here; we really should get together and decide on a common nomenclature, but it shouldn't be necessary. Most of Mathematics is, or will be, couched in the terms of N. Bourbaki, and these are what we use here. Many of you are familiar with the work of L. Felix in bringing Bourbaki to the schools - indeed, she is required reading for most Mathematics teachers in Europe and undoubtedly had great influence here. Difficulties over terminology are absurd, but can involve a student in real difficulty. Many students mentioned that their teachers had used tutorial and seminar methods with great success, that their teachers had encouraged them to use the school library, to actively participate in learning, and to study well outside the syllabus. But most students appear to have had an arid time of it; "more watching than doing" is a phrase one of them used that sums it up for the majority. Many students were quite bitter about the lack of enthusiasm of their teachers, but I should think this is not a problem with younger teachers. I merely suggest that you consider breaking the class into small groups which would discuss problems, with the teacher intervening only if asked. (Several students mentioned that this is done at Lakeview and is a great success.) I suggest teacher-aided discovery, more library projects (one of our better students informed me that she had never seen the inside of her school library!) and more willingness to go off the beaten track. Why not have them consider some L. Dale Black 30 �simple game theory (does your library have a copy of the "Compleat Strategyst"?),give them topics like "the groups generated by various wallpaper patterns", "modern geometries': "the relations between simple switching circuits and logic". Even number theory can provide interesting and elementary topics - Davenport's book The Higher Arithmetic is a good source here. Perhaps your library subscribes to the Mathematical Gazette - if not, it should, and there is a very interesting book published by Unesco in 1966 - New Trends in not 0. How do we use such a condition? The obvious answer is we must divide by a. This is our reflex action when confronted by a non-0 number. (As an aside, if it's a calculus problem, we use I a I as the £ in a continuity or convergence argument. Perhaps this is the only difference between algebra and calculus - the way we use non-0 numbers.) Thus, we look around at the surrounding facts to find something to divide a into. It is by the continual repetition of points like this that develop a student's intuition and powers of analysis. So, your students must be given a feeling for the mechanics of a proof; it is not enough for them merely to be able to reproduce a proof. And, most important, they must realize that Mathematics is proving; it is not manipulating numbers and substituting for x and comparing with the answers in the back of the book. It is a game you play with abstract concepts which_ you bend to your will; it is a game they must enjoy. t Mathematics Teaching. Another minor suggestion: students here often have trouble taking notes in lectures; they have no practice in this. It might be worthwhile to give informal talks during which the students are expected to take notes. It will be hard in the beginning. Some students will find it impossible (you may be surprised - some very good students just cannot absorb oral information), but it will be rewarding, even for those who do not continue on to University. Now, let me come to the major suggestion. Nearly all my students found this fault in their previous schooling; there was not enough theory, there was too much emphasis on numerical working, type problems and unthinking manipulation. One mentioned that "Math in school is arithmetic". I hope this was an exaggeration. When it came to a proof, quote, "Math teachers told us to memorize" again ' teachers ask, "do you understand this proof", then laugh and say - "if you don't understand it, don't worry about it" '. This is unforgivable. Mathematics is thought, proof and deduction, not blind manipulation of meaningless squiggles, and all of us here know that. Tell your students - if you don't understand a proof, do worry about it. As teachers, you must help them in analyzing proofs. Point out the common guideposts in a proof. Why does the proof proceed this way? Can you think of any other way it could go? Point out the various options which are open at each stage of a proof: is the next step in the proof inexorable? is it the only reasonable path to follow? Try a few blind alleys. Point out where each of the given conditions is used. Are any of the hypotheses used twice? Are some ,never used at all? (I aways feel a proof is unsatisfactory if any condition is used more than once it is certainly not a pleasing proof if it is not economical - and certainly the statement of the theorem is unsatisfactory if some condition is never used.) Suppose, in some theorem, we have the condition that a certain number, say, a, is COMMENTS ON THE SNOW PLOW PROBLEMS The article on snow plow problems contributed by Professor Math imaki to "The Gazette, volume 3 has aroused some favourable fan mail but not, regrettably, a simple solution to the second problem as requested. The learned professor would still like to obtain such a solution so please, if you have any thoughts on the subject send them to the editor. As far as we know, the second problem - the one involving two snow plows - has never been published before. The first problem appeared in "Ingenious Mathematical Problems and Methods" by L.A. Graham (Dover Books), and as E275 in the American Mathematical Monthly, the solution being in the December 1937 issue; we are indebted to Mr. L.j. Upton of Mississauga for these references. Professor Mathimaki first encountered the problem in a pub, in Kingston. It seemed to be fairly wellknown to calculus students at Queens in the fifties. (We would like to know where Mathemaki bought his second plough, which appears to have the capability of travelling faster than light! - Ed.) 31 �WHO NEEDS A COMPUTER! If clearly written APL notation can be a help in communicating mathematical ideas - why does one need a computer at all when using APL as a teaching aid? Dr. Paul Penfield of M.I.T. in a recent paper on his use of APL as a notation in an Electrical Engineering course reported that his students felt they learned little from going to the computer. They learned most from clarifying their thoughts into APL before they reached the computer. Of course, the same fact is true for a student writing in FORTRAN - he learns most while writing his program not while running it even though it is more difficult clearly to express one's thoughts in FORrRAN. The computer really serves two purpose here; firstly it motivates the student to write his program since he can make use of it; secondly it tirelessly tests his work, isolating mistakes and correcting misconceptions. The computer is still a glamorous creature to many students who are eager to use it. Many thoroughly enjoy using APL. It is, however, only a tool. What matters most is not the machine, but the thought behind what it is used for. t The success of APL/360 as a computer system, while effectively spreading the use of the language, has considerably obscured its purpose. APL was intended originally to simplify communication between human beings, both as a publication and a teaching notation. Common features of problems being solved by computer were represented by powerful new primitive functions, enabling concise and elegant descriptions of algorithms to be produced. Iverson, the author of APL, also demonstrated that his notation could be used to describe the computer itself. In 1962 he published the paper, "A Common Language for Hardware, Software and Applications'~ and in 1964, together with Falkoff and Sussenguth published "A Formal Description of System/360". This latter paper concisely described the hardware operation of the I BM System/360 computer. APL was therefore being used as a publication and teaching notation before any computer implementation. In fact the language was called "A Programming Language" and not "A Computer Programming Language". Iverson also intended that his notation should have an impact upon Mathematics as well as Computer Sceince. The language is a development of the notation of Algebra. Ambiguities have been removed, useful functions added and a more unified approach to the manipulation of arrays provided. Iverson has successfully used his notation in the teaching of Mathematics - again without necessarily using a computer. He has also published texts in both Elem-. entary Algebra and Calculus using APL notation. One might expect to find others using APL as a useful notation in Computer Science, Mathematics and mathematically based disciplines. So far, however the use of APL as a notation has been small. Without the dramatic success of APL as a computer programming language, the notation might have been ignored for a good many more years. The first computer implementations of APL were produced as an experimental aid to the development of the notation. From that point APL also became a means for a human to communicate with a computer, rather than another human. APL/360 in particular very quickly had great success as a computer programming language and system. Users became enthusiastic over their interactions with the computer to such an extent that they lost interest in communicating with each other. It is unfortunate that all present APL implementations execute programs faster when the program is made more difficult to read. This has further obscured the real purpose of APL. INTRODUCING THE NEW COSTING SYSTEM Users will find their output contains some new statistics including a dollar cost. These statistics refer to the new charging system which will be run concurrently with the old system for a trial period. An extensive study has been made to obtain realistic and accurate charging for every aspect of computer usage. Use of the fast core will cost more than use of slow core. Usage during peak periods of the day will be more expensive than overnight runs. APL users will be charged half the previous rates per connect hour - but charges will be made for CPU time and workspace storage. Overall, the computer centre expects that charges for computer centre services will not change substantially. If the costs are similar - why have a new costing system? We need as realistic and fair charging scheme as possible for the benefit of external userswhose use of facilities is expanding. The new scale of charges is contained in the Academic User's Guide section 2.4. 32 �COMPUTER SCIENCE IN THE SCHOOLS By J. S. Griffith I feel that all children should know something about the nature and uses of computers in our present day world. Rather than start by a general discussion of computers or a history of their evolution, I consider the first step in such a program should be to get the class to run programs on a "real live" computer, either individually or in groups. These programs can be devised by the teacher, but should demonstrate something of the speed and storage capabilities of modern computers. Let me assume for the rest of this article that access to the Lakehead University Computer Centre (either by the physical presence of students at APL terminals or by preparing punched cards and FORTRAN programs) is possible. JA=KA-IA*10 PRINT, JA IF{I.LT.100) GO TO 1 STOP END Try your own program for addition using tens and units - remember to test for carry of one. C SIMPLE L<l)<l)P l=D 1=1+1 IF {1.EQ.11) G<l) T<l) 2 PRINT, I INTRODUCTORY PROGRAMS C GQ T<l) 1 WHAT IS HAPPENING? 2 A=l ST<l)P END 8=2 C=3 D=A+B+C C PRINT, A,B,C,D 10 G.C.F. OF 75 AND 120 1=0 8 J=25-I IF{120/J*J. EQ. 120. AND.75/J*J.EQ.75) PRINT, J D=B/C PRINT, A,B,C,D 1=1+1 STOP IF {I.LT. 75) G<l) T<l) 10 END ST<l)P C END SEPARATION OF 100 NUMBERS INTO TENS AND UNITS C l=O Fl RST 20 MULTIPLES OF 2,3,4,5,6,9, 10 PRINT, 'MULTIPLES OF 2--OF 3--OF 4-OF 5--OF 6--OF 9--OF 10' READ, KA N=l PRINT, KA 1=1+1 5 N2=2*N N3=3*N C FINDING THE TENS DIGIT N4=4*N IA=KA/10 N5=5*N PRINT, IA N6=6*N N9=9*N C FINDING THE UNITS DIGIT N10=10*N (Continued on next page) 33 �asking him to figure out what it does, then run it: discovery by experimentation). PRINT, N2,N3,N4,N5,N6,N9,N10 IF (N.LE.20) TQ T(/) 5 STOP References include: END Computers and high school teaching, J.S. Griffith, Lakehead University Once they have used the computer, there should be sufficient material available to demonstrate, from their programs, the organization of arithmetical operations, branches, loops, flow charts. Then one can look at non numerical applications e.g. flow charts for biological development, getting to school in the morning, dancing, setting up a tent, using timetables, dictionaries, literary card indices. This may be followed by work on the social impact of computers e.g. data manipulation (payroll, accounting), data banks and information retrieval (medical records, criminal records, license plate records, libraries, stock control), real-time and on-line control (seat reservations, banking, machine control of production processes), problem solving and models of physical situations (nuclear reactorssafer to test models numerically than physically; stellar models - impossible to build in a laboratory or wait a billion years to observe evolution, weather forecasting), future possibilities. Ask the class to try to find a large company or manufacturing concern that does not use computers. Look at family bills for evidence of computer activity. Fortran IV with WATFOR and WATIV, Cress, Dirksen, Graham, Prentice-Hall Ten Statement FORTRAN plus FORTRAN IV, Kennedy and Solomon, Prentice-Hall and, of course, any other books you can find. The pages of the "Gazette" seem to be an appropriate place for the interchange of ideas and programs. A reference for the future impact is C.S. Wallia "Toward Century 21" Basic Books. t SQUARE PROBLEM Suppose that you have a square room and that you wish to tile it with square tiles, not necessarily all of the same size. How many tiles could you buy to do the job and not have an excess? For example, could you tile the room with 6 tiles? 9 ·tiles? 5 tiles? Certainly you can always tile the room with 1 tile. Determine for which positive integers n you can tile the room with n square tiles. - J.H.M. Whitfield Other topics include: The sort of jobs associated with computers (operational staff, data preparation, data control, tape librarian, computer operator, programmers, systems analysts and designers, and engineers). History of computers, (abacus, addition and multiplication tables, slide rule, desk calculator, accounting (Hollerith) machines, digital and analogue computers. Values, transistors ... ) Numerical analysis (how do errors propagate in various operations, linear equations, numerical integration, (f (x) =0), statistics. How computers work - logical principles (Boolean algebra and Turing machines via functional matrices), construction of simple circuits. Data processing (Systems analysis, fast finding, form designs, design of data collection, report writing, systems flow charts, decision tables, programming, coding, testing, documentation, implementation. File handling, editing, relating, up-dating on magnetic tape, cards or disc. Sorting and collating files, information retrieval, data banks, terminals. Data transmission, invoicing with sales analysis, payroll, medical records). Many other programs may be obtained from the following references (try giving the child a program, WHAT'S WRONG HERE? Below, a "proof" is given that all triangles are isosceles. Take a triangle ABC. Let s be the bisector of i: ACE and n the perpendicular bisector of AB. Let E be the intersection of s and n. c Consider i: B D n MDE and /J.BDE. We have AD ADE DE Therefore 1 BD BDE DE MDE Consider now = /J.BDE. MEC and /J.BCE. From (1), we obtain AE BE. Furthermore, CE CE, i: ACE = i,BCE. Since both~ CAE and ~ CBE are acute, we conclude that /J.AEC= ABCE, and therefore AC= BC. This means MBC is isosceles. Of course, we know that not every triangle is isosceles, so something in this "proof" must be wrong. Can you find out what? 34 �EXPERIMENTAL GEOMETRY [ FIGURE 1) B B' ol----------------------Io· ~ A Take a rectangular paper strip, A A' BB' {Fig. 1). Draw a center line DD' 11 A A'. Now twist it once, as in Fig. 2. [ FIGURE 2 J B Without a further twist, put the edges A Band B' A' together, such that A and B' coincide, and A' and B {Fig. 3). Glue it along A B. Then cut it through along DD'. A' oJ-------~------ Jo· A B' [ FIGURE 3) What happens? What happens if, before gluing, you twist it once more {Fig. 4)? [ FIGURE 4) FIGURE 1 C' D' FIGURE 2 E,E' - - - - - - - - -, - - - F ,F' ............... D,D' .c,c'.,..,..,..,. __________ , ,I ,, Draw Fig. 1, where ABCD and ABCD' are squares, ADE, AD'E', BCF, BC'F' equilateral triangles. Add the shaded pieces for later gluing. Cut the figure out and fold it along the thick lines. Then glue it together such that D and D', C and C', E and E', F and F' coincide {Fig. 2). Do the same thing once more, so you get two congruent solids. Can you put them together to form a regular tetrahedon {a pyramid whose faces are four congruent equilateral triangles, Fig. 3)? I A FIGURE 3 35 �COMPUTERS PLAY CHESS: CAN YOU DO BETTER? United States Computer Chess Championship Boston, Massachusetts August 13- 15, 1972 WHITE: Northwestern University BLACK: Columbia University (Larry Atkin, Keith Gorlen, David Slate) (Monty Newborn, George Ar.r'lold) Computer: CDC 6400 Location: Evanston, 111. Computer: Data General Nova 800 Location: Sheraton-Boston Hotel Time 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Time White (sec.} Black (sec.} P- K4 N-KB3 P- Q4 NxP N-KB3 N-83 Q-Q2 N- Q5 P- QN4 P- B3 NxB B- B4 BxB N- N5 0- 0 N- B3 R- Ql Q- K2 B- N2 N- Q2 P- QB4 Q- Q3 P- N3 B- R3 R(Rl}-Nl R- Kl K- N2 P- R3 R- N3 K- R2 Q- K2 R- KB3 P- R4 K- Rl K- N2 NxR B- B1 B- N5 B- Q8 ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) (235) (140) (199) (181) ( 74) ( 64) ( 49) ( 99) ( 69) ( 92) (115) ( 56) ( 56) (115) (108) (135} ( 95) ( 91) {119} ( 70) (122) ( 88) ( 75) ( 80) ( 94) (115) (101) (130) ( 80) ( 88) (110) ( 65) (108) (106) (176} P- QB4 N- QB3 PxP P-K4 Q-N3 B-B4 P-Q3 Q-Ql B- Q5 B- N3 PxN B- K3 PxB Q-Q2 P- KR3 1) 1) 1) 1) ( 1) {269) (227) (144) (143) (147) ( 44) {207) ( 39) ( 87) ( 58) (220) (245} (230) (195) ( 67} (246} (154} (162) ( 90) (257) ( 89) ( 69) (257) ( 63) (249) ( 94) ( 63) (249) ( 78) {216) ( 52) (251) ( 63) {286) 0- 0- 0 N- B3 Q- QB2 N- K2 P- Q4 P- Q5 N- N3 Q- K2 K- B2 R- R2 R- Q2 Q- Ql N- Nl Q- N4 R- B2 N- B3 P- R4 N- N5 Q- K2 RxR Q- B3 K- Q3 Q- B2 R- Rl Time White 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 36 (sec. } (157) BxP N- N5 ( 97) P- N5 (185) (195) R- QNl ( 94) R- KB1 (173) Q- B3 ( 78) Q- R3 (135) B- B5 N- B7 (146) R-Bl (155) ( 26) N-Q6 (110) P-N6 R-Kl (149) K-Nl ( 36) R-KBl (110) N- B7 ( 99) NxR (106} P- B3 ( 56) K- B2 ( 67} ( 96} R- QNl K- N2 (109} (100) K- B2 R- N5 ( 88) R- N2 ( 78) (234) Q- N4 ( 80) Q- N5 ( 85) R- Q2 ( 39) PxQ ( 74) R- Q3 P- R4 (129) P- R5 ( 79) P- R6 ( 50) PxP (138) P- R7 (105) ( 52) R- R3 P- N7 ( 27) P- R8=Q ( 32) R- R7 Mate( 33) Time Black (sec. } K- K2 Q- Kl Q- QBl R- KBl R- K1 R- B1 K- Q2 R- Rl R- R2 N- R3 Q- B2 Q- B3 R- Rl N- N5 R- R3 QxP (K4) NxN Q- QB3 K- Ql Q- Q2 N- B4 Q- Bl K- Q2 K- B3 K- Q2 Q- B3 QxQ K- Ql N(N3) - K2 P- N3 K- Q2 PxP K- B1 K- N2 K- Rl KxP K- B2 ( 63) (241) (111) ( 82) (335) (135) ( 82) ( 94) (104) ( 88) (234) ( 69) (126) (116) (299) (151) ( 75) (102) (128} (119} ( 75} (232} ( 99) (288} ( 80) ( 39) (227) ( 60) (165) ( 66) (211) ( 57) (231) (129) ( 85) ( 1) ( 1) �AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MATHEMATICS LEARNING A COURSE OF GEOMETRY FOR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Pub. 1963 - Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London. Pub. 1970 - Cambridge University Press. Z.P. Dienes D. Pedoe This book would be suitable for students specializing in mathematics for elementary teachers. It would also be a good reference book for students of child psychology. Dienes's treatment of mathematical concepts learned as a function of play is fascinating, but rather too intricate for the general student. The book is certainly thought-provoking although one who has little background in mathematics might find it difficult to follow. The chapter on educational implications is significant and would be worth-while reading for any teacher. Many of us, having studied under graduate mathematicians at a time when geometry was at a low ebb, find ourselves short of examples, intuition, and a sense of direction about how high school geometry can be developed and directed. This book was written as a text for the undergraduate course we should have taken and can assist us in picking up some of the ideas which are at the heart of geometry. The book is a large collection of elementary geometry in its many forms. Though the author concentrates on analytic geometry, including some use of vectors and a prelude to algebraic geometry, he uses a variety of approaches in proofs of the basic theorems, including pretty synthetic constructions when these are appropriate. The various chapters tend to be a bit disconnected, which makes it hard to see the material as a unified whole. However this situation does make it possible to dip into the middle sections on mappings of the plane, without extensive reading of the preceeding sections on coaxial systems etc. All of the essentials of euclidlean goemetry and projective geomentry are presented in some detail and there are regular, if somewhat difficult, exercises. Several sections, such as the nine point circle, or a pretty section on reflections, could even be read by high school students as they stand. This book is a fine reference and source book at a time when we need all the geometric intuition we can get, in order to digest the abstractions which are piling up around us. D. Botly HOW CHILDREN LEARN MATHEMATICS Pub. 1970 - The Macmillan Co. New York Richard W. Copeland Copeland's stress on the learning of mathematics rather than on the teaching is directly in line with the type of programme advocated by an increasing number of educators and classroom teachers. "How Children Learn Mathematics" would make excellent preparatory reading for any course for teachers of elementary mathematics. Although the works of Piaget are very detailed, Copeland has developed Piaget's approach clearly and concisely and applied it to the teacher's role in a way which is sure to help any teacher who reads this book. Copeland achieves a fine balance of theory and practicality. This book should be available for all Education students in the elementary field. Walter Whiteley D. Botly 37 �n 0 0 Figure 1 Figure 2a Figure 2b A PERPETUAL PROBLEM Every common mechanic has something to say in his craft about good and evil, useful and useless, but these practical considerations never enter into the purview of the mathematician. 1 With the above in mind, one may be enticed to join Jean Bernoulli, Sr., and Leonardo da Vinci for a few minutes and enter the realm of the perpetual-motionmongers. 2 g ~ Though it is an unpromising venture from a physical point of view it can be entertaining mathematics. Consider a U-shaped vessel made of a non-flexible material, such as a tin can, with a heavy steel ball inside and covered on top with an elastic, watertight lid as shown in figure 1. Observe that when this container is placed under water the amount of the water displaced - and hence the buoyancy - is dependent on its position; when upright as in figure 2a the lid is pressed inward by the water pressure, while when the container is upside down as in 2b, the weight of the ball stretches the cover outward thus increasing the buoyancy. Attach an even number of these containers to an endless belt on two pulleys as shown in figure 3 and submerge the entire system under water. Aristippus of Cyrene, quoted by HICKS, R.D. "Stoic and Epicurean"; (New York, Charles Schribner's Sons, 1910) p. 210 2 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1967, Vol. 17, p. 639-41 Figure 3 38 �Competition This is an open competition in which EVEN TEACHERS may compete! FILL ME IN AND MAIL ME TODAY! NAME ADDRESS AGE, IF UNDER 21 Write numbers in order of preference I would like to read articles on: Pure Science Applied Science Technology Jobs People & Personalities Sports Puzzles Music Games Other _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ MY OPINION OF THE FIRST ISSUE OF "CARET" IS: A GOOD TITLE FOR "CARET" WOULD BE ( THANK YOU FOR HELPING US. - The Editor ) 39 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 1 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 1, January 1973. Articles on a variety of topics: The science of the body and athletics Interview with Lakehead University Glassblower Ken Sumpter Whisky distillation in Scotland and Ireland Opinions of Science at LU Overview of the Liberal Science Program and its courses Students views of the Liberal Science Program Reproductive behaviour of the blue gourami. Biology and pollution Mathematics Gazette Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973-01 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e543bd440bb499cf78075002d823ab9a.pdf 7c0861185060b44912e40f9a08b6cb14 PDF Text Text ~ . ~ g I LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW '· t VOLUME 1 A PUBLICATION OF THE ONLY NUMBER 2 FACULTY OF SCIENCE THAT TRULY UNDERSTANDS ONTARIO ~ -1111~'!: ..~ ~:1 - ., .;.~!t: ' . ~ ,:: .- iit ,. I '-'Y' ........... .,, .... ~ t...,... .... """' : , . . '1 rt a ,,.-❖ ·•. - • �OUR COVER Dr. John Ryder, an ornithologist of international repute has been studying the habits of the graceful ring-billed gull which frequents Thunder Bay and occasionally makes excursions onto the University campus. Two articles in this issue describe the observation post. In the cover photograph, gulls are to be seen incubating their eggs in the grassy areas while the guards on the rocky areas stay alert to the danger from predators and interference from "foreigners". �I.I Minister of State Ministre d'Etat Science and Technology Sciences et Technologie January 18, 1973. Dr. John Ha rt , Department of Physics, Lakehead University, Postal Station 11 P11 , Thunder Bay, Ontario. Dear Dr. Hart: You have asked me to furnish you with a letter which will indicate the importance of science and technology to young people. I do not know that there are aspects of science and technology which have relevance~ to the young. It seems to me that science and technology vitally affect the well-being of all Canadians and the future of Canadian society asa whole. Perhaps it is because of its effect on the Canadian society of the future that you have directed attention particularly to young people. They unquestionably will inherit the benefits of our stewardship of science and technology. They also will bear the burden of the negative aspects of that stewardship. More and more we are realizing that science and technology are, after all, two-edged swords. Every day the message becomes clearer that we must orient our scientific and technological efforts towards pre-determined goals. It is, of course, impossible to predict all the effects of a given innovation before it is invented. Yet we must hope that by directing our energies to the solution of present and foreseeable problems of importance to our society as a whole, we can help buil"d a better Canada and avoid the unfortunate side-effects that certain inventions may bring. . .. I 2 �- 2 Dr. John Hart, Lakehead University. January 18, 1973. At this stage the problem becomes one of choosing the most desirable directions. These choices will inevitably be dictated by the system of values of the society and of the individuals that make up the society. This is the most important point for the young to remember, namely, that the mere existence of scientific and technological knowledge places an obligation on them to learn, question and evaluate both that very knowledge and the value structures of past and present societies. Since no single person can have all the answers, everyone must contribute, or our society will surely fail in its fundamental obligation to provide a life worth living for its members and their descendants. I hope that this will meet at least part of what you had in mind. Yours sincerely, 1 't~ LI ►._, (Mme) Jeanne Sauve �a le of Contents 1 Editorial 2 Letters to the Editor 5 10 12 15 19 22 23 24 28 31 33 36 38 41 42 43 46 48 50 51 55 58 59 DO SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS EXPLAIN? THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN EVERYDAY THOUGHT SCIENCE AND APPLE PIE BASIC AIR NAVIGATION - A LOST ART? THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN OBSERVATION TOWER THE USE OF AN OBSERVATION TOWER BIOLOGY FROM THE STUDENTS' EYE VIEW THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF BIOLOGISTS THE CATALYTIC REMOVAL OF AIR POLLUTANTS - QUO VADIS? DETERGENTS AND OUR WATER THE CTS PROJECT ANO SOME EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS PRESENT AWARENESS HARWELL ATOMIC ENERGY RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT THE EFFECTIVE SHAPE OF A MOLECULE PHYSICS ANO BIOLOGY - ARE THEY SEPARABLE? FUTURE CAREERS HIGH SCHOOL "DROP OUTS"! SO YOU WANT TO BE A NURSE? A BRICK PROBLEM INTERVIEW WITH LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY STOREKEEPER: Bert Harding THIN SECTIONS HOW MAY TEACHERS KEEP IN TOUCH WITH EXPANSION OF THEIR SUBJECT? ARE TEACHERS BORN OR MADE? J. Douglas Rabb E.S. Bodzin Jim Wheeler Air Vice Marshal D.A.R. Bradshaw John R. Butler John Ryder Jean Pekkala and Frank Cartwright C. A. Elsey Robert A. Ross Gordon Francis T. R. Ide A Liberal Science Student Huw Dorkins E. Tyrral 1 Margaret Hawton Moe Ktytor Maurice G. Black Madeline Hookings J. H. M. Whitfield R. L. Bennett J. S. Griffith Casey A. Gehrels �continued ...... 60 61 62 64 67 69 73 75 THE ADVENTURES OF MATHMAN LAKEHEAD BECOMES CANADIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY TRANSLATION ON A COMPUTER BLACK AND WHITE HOLES A PACKING PROBLEM THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE GAME OF BRIDGE CROSSWORDS QUICK CROSSWORD L.U. Math Club Edward Mercy K. H. V. Booth J. S. Griffith J. H. M. Whitfield Larry Hansen �Car t A LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW incorporating LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS AZETTE (kar 'at) n. A sign ( A or A ) placed below a line to indicate where something should be inserted. Our CARET symbolizes the disastrous communications gap between High Schools and Universities: the bridge across it is missing and we will hope to span the void if only with a gossamer thread. Let us know what kind of articles you would like to see. Write an article yourself and send it in. Push your science teachers into sending us stories about their scientific and personal interests, or write about them yourselves (what an opportunity!) Above all, don't think that what you have to say will not be of any interest to us: let us be the judge of that. And, please don't assume that university scientists are somehow not quite human; we experience the same emotions of fear and hope, love and hate as the majority of human kind. The views expressed in CARET do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Editor, the Faculty or the University. CARET is published by the Faculty of Science of Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. P7B 5El Our Competition The four volume Encyclopaedia goes to Nancy Hathaway, 18-32 Arden Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba. R2M 2J9 She proposed the tit 1e SCIENTIFIC CHANNEL, which she says 11 incorporates the ideas of a bridge between high schools and science, and of tuning in to science". It's a good title, Nancy; but the competition board have decided to stick to the old title after all, so CARET is still CARET. To everybody who returned the forms, a big THANK YOU. we hope you will write to us again, and keep us informed. Communication has to be two-way, so LET US HEAR FROM YOU! Editorial The production of the first number of a magazine is an adventure: the initial impetus is bound to be strong and the problems of production are seen as a challenge. The real test of success is the second number which is produced on the basis of experience. Modifications in technique are introduced, and the Editor has a somewhat more perceptive view of his constituency. Many an editor has quailed before the task of producing a second edition, and national libraries are graveyards of one-issue journals. CARET has made it! We have learned some lessons, and have modified our ambitions in terms of the paper and print, but not our demand for good authorship. We are gratified that we have articles in cold storage far in excess of the quantity we can publish and we shall continue to approach likely authors for subjects of special interest. It is very rare for us to receive a refusal as this number amply demonstrates: in these pages are as wide a range of topics as one would meet anywhere, with authorships from laboratory technicians up to the Minister herself. In some ways, we seem to be too successful. Science teachers seem �to have developed the habit of taking CARET home for their families to read and 1 forgetting 1 to bring it back. Shame on you! We have visited schools throughout Northwestern Ontario, and it is a rare occurrence to find students who are even aware of its existence. At fifty cents, CARET is a bargain, and surely deserves the widest circulation? collections for the best essay discussing the reasons why our complicated life-style prevents us from being rational. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR Sir: DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY OFFERS VALUABLE PRIZE - CHAIRMAN TAKES AIM AT THE AUTOMOBILE Sir: The U.S. Government has introduced legislation aimed at reducing pollution of the atmosphere by auto exhausts. The major manufacturers of autos have responded by fixing control systems to engines which meet the stringent requirements laid down by law - but increase the consumption of gasoline by as much as thirty per cent. What a waste of a resource, the availability of which is becoming less and less. Following a recent editorial in 'Science', I bring to your attention a solution to the pollution problem. Since most autos in North America weigh about two tons and have 300 cubic inch engines, let the Government pass legislation to restrict the weight of autos to a maximum of one ton and the size of engines to 150 cubic inches. At once, pollution is halved and so is the need for gasoline. Since this simple solution is not possible, given our present economic and social system, I offer a handsome mineral specimen from the Departmental Yours etc. Edward Mercy, Chairman, The Geology Department, Lakehead University. I have read your first edition (January 1973) and must say that I enjoyed it very much. In your opening remarks you asked for suggestions for a title and suggestions of what kind of articles should be included in this magazine. Below are some suggestions, which I hope will be of interest to you. First of all,, I think '' Science Sum• 1974 mat1.on" or "Science};" would be a 11H3 good title for your ma.gazine, since it would seem to me that one of your chief aims is to give the scope of scientific learning and information. Also, because there are these interrelated yet distinctive areas of scientific study, it would seem feasible to have sections in the publication set aside for each of these areas - somewhat like you did for the Math section in your January edition but perhaps not as long. Another aim of your magazine would seem to be an interchange of scientific happenings in Northwestern Ontario as well as Lakehead University, thus why not contact difference science chairmen and/or teachers* (who in turn could contact students) in the High Schools of Northwestern Ontario and have them submit articles which could be published in a Northwestern Ontario section. This section should include short reports from each of the communities in Northwestern Ontario. They should be encouraged �to send in several reports and the best ones be printed. Also any reports that are too long for this section could then be placed in one of the specific subject areas (i.e. Math, Physics, Biology, etc.) or could be placed in the miscellaneous section, which would follow "Letters to the Editor as it does in your January edition. More reports on the different courses and comments such as "Liberal Science" articles would be appreciated. It might seem as if I'm suggesting that you publish a choppy magazine, but what I'm really trying to say is that Mathematicians would automatically turn to the Math section first and then read the other articles; Physicists would turn to Physics; Northwestern Ontario readers would turn to Northwestern Ontario and compare notes and programmes and get ideas, and in each case the rest of the magazine, especially if they found their section interesting and informative. This leads me to my last suggestion that the first page should not only include letters to the editor but also a list of contents and a statement as to whether this is a monthly, bimonthly, etc. magazine so that subscribers would know when to get their reports in and readers would know when to watch for the next edition of the magazine. I do hope I have not wasted your time with these few scribblings and if I can be of any assistance in any way feel free to contact me. The Physical Nature of the Earth is merely Geology la6 which is the first-year course for specialist students who wish to continue in the field of geology". May I correct this statement? Geology la6, and therefore LS1O4, is one of the few science courses which is open to any student who has the pre-requisite, "A grade 13 Science Subject". In this year's class, there are students from each of the five science majors, from both the Liberal Science and General Science programmes, as well as students from the Departments of Geography, Economics, Psychology and Sociology. It is not a course for the specialist student and certainly is not a course 'geared' towards the Liberal Science student. If it is 'geared' to anyone it is to the intelligent student. Yours etc. Edward Mercy, Chairman, The Geology Department, Lakehead University. Sir: Congratulations on an excellent Volume 1! Our students, teachers and myself found the articles most interesting. Find enclosed a recent experiment that my Environmental Chemistry class conducted this past two weeks. The students enjoyed the experiment, and are presently inviting other students in the school to bring their own detergents from home for analysis. Gordon Francis wrote up a small report for our school newspaper, which is a bi-monthly, maybe you can use it. Looking forward to your next edition. Yours etc. Sheila Flesher, 333 Ogden Street, Thunder Bay F, Ontario. *We did! - Ed. Yours etc. Sir: Bob Aitken, Lakewood Secondary School, Kenora, Ontario. On page 22 of the last issue there appears the statement that "LS1O4 3 �often difficult to learn and even more difficult to apply to em solving. It is true that in sity, you will discover that some of the things you were taught at lower levels were crap! That's 1 part of the excitement of science. Sir: I have just read a copy of your first issue of CARET. You have developed a very worthwhile publication which I suspect will go a long way toward bridging the university - high school gap that seems to exist everywhere. This will be specially true if you can encourage high school teachers to contribute. would you please be so kind as to place me on your mailing list. I am taking the liberty of sending you a copy of our publication, Physics Teaching Today, which is making some progress in increasing communication between the university and the high schools. Dear Professor: I'm very keen on chemistry, and get good marks. Sometimes I do things in the laboratory which I'm not supIXJSed to do, and make an awful stink. I think I'm being original, but my teacher is threatening to ban me from the lab. Why can't I be left alone? - w.J. Yours etc. Dr. Richard Reis, Assistant Professor, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Memorial University of Newfoundland - St. John's. Dear W.J. Burning flesh smells terrible. Write to: PROFESSOR PSYMPATHI, c/o THE DEAN OF SCIENCE, LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO. Thank you, Dr. Reis. Physics Teaching Today is a lively publication - where did you get that centrefold Playmate? - Ed. P7B 5E ■ Say first, of God above, or man below, What can we reason, but from what we know, Of man, what see we but his station here, From which to reason, or to which refer, Through worlds unnumbered though God be known, 1 Tis ours to trace him only in our own. can rough vast immensi He, who pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one universe, Observe how system into system runs, What other planets circle other suns, What varied being peoples every star, May tell why Heaven has made us as we are. PROFESSOR PSYMPATHI ADVISES Dear Professor: My teacher says science is all facts, but I try to argue with him that it's no good learning them because they're all crap and will be changed by the time I get out of school, and then he gets mad, and throws me out of the class. Why should I learn all this stuff? - G.K. Dear G.K. Some parts of science are so well established that they can rightly be ca 11 ed facts These facts a re II II 11 • II . 4 �DO SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS EXPLAIN? By J. Douglas Rabb THE SCIENTIST IS NOT A PASSIVE is, ~hose sciences such as physics, chemistry, geology and biology, in which observation plays an important role. 1 Although we all know, in some sense, what observation is it is .important to realize that there ' are some striking differences between scientific observation and our ordinary sightings and noticings. Scientific observation is, generally speaking, undertaken in order to put some tentative hypothesis to the test. The scientist is then, not merely a passive observer;' rather he sets out deliberately to make certain observations for a particular purpose. As Charles Darwin once put it "AU observation must be for or against some view if it is to be of any serviae." 2 One of the most important aspects of scientific observation is the demand for public verifiability or objectivity. That is, any particular scientific observation must be capable of repetition by~ any qualified observer. As the contemporary philospher of science, Max Black puts it: OBSERVER Do scientific explanations explain? I have suggested to the author of this paper, whom I know quite we 11 - he being myse 1f, that this question is a rather silly one. Surely it is obvious that scientific explanations explain. Indeed that is why we call them 'explanations'. The author, whose opinion I greatly respect, has replied that in asking this question he was, in fact, wondering whether scientific explanations actually increase our knowledge and understanding of the world. But surely this too is a rather silly question. Has not the advance of scientific knowledge over the past few decades been one of the most dramatic accomplishments of mankind? Is not the purpose of scientific inquiry to unravel the mysteries of the universe? This certainly seems to be the most common belief concerning what science is up to. But if one is bold enough to ask whether or not this prevailing opinion is correct, and the author of this paper assures me that he is then .1t seems that we are back to the ' question with which we began - i.e., Do scientific explanations explain? But how does one go about answering this sort of question, as opposed to telling other people not to ask it? First, it will be necessary to establish what exactly a scientific explanation is -what sort of thing we are doing when we are offering this kind of explanation. Only after this is accomplished can we even begin to ask whether or not scientific explanations increase our understanding of the wor 1d. It should be noted that I am primarily concerned with what may be called the empirical sciences - that " .... the report of the individual scientist gets no more credit than it can win through the critical repetition of the observations by other scientists ... The requirement for public verification ... is the best instrument we have against personal bias and prejudice. u 3 However, this demand for public verifiability has exerted a most interesting influence on the sort of observations scientists are willing to admit. Since the observations must be repeatable they are limited to those about which no dispute could, in practice, arise. Since sight is the most accurate of our senses, the observations are usually 1 imited to visual ones. And as Max Black correct5 �ly points out in a most illuminating passage: unconscious in general, theoretical constructs. Theories of this type can only be confirmed indirectly, since we cannot observe the entities or properties to which they refer. By indirect confirmation, I mean the following: we can deduce that if the theory were correct then a certain set of observation statements would then be true. If the observation statements turn out to be true then the theory is confirmed, or at least on the way to being confirmed. But if some or all of the observation statements which would be true if the theory were correct, in fact, turn out to be false then the theory is incorrect and must be discarded or at least amended. In order to facilitate discussion of this argument it is helpful to state it in rather more formal terms. If we let the statements expressing the theory or explanation be represented by the statement-variable 'p 1 and the observation statements by 1 q 1 then the important part of the above argument can be stated very simply as follows: if p then q,but q is false, therefore pis false. It has been argued by some that this deceptively simple argument form which logicians honour with the Latin name modus tollens 5 is, in fact, at the very basis of the validity of the empirical sciences. 6 If this view is correct, and I am inclined to believe that some such view must be correct, then two important consequences follow. The first is that the scientist is constantly searching for ways of falsifying currently held theories. Rom Harre, a philospher of science at Oxford, summarizes this kind of account of scientific investigation as fo 11 ows: "What needs to be seen tends to be increasingly narrowed down to the position of a pointer on a numbered scale .... The situation to be observed is defined in the light of increasin~ly more complex theorry, and what ~s recorded becomes increasingly something selected, abstracted, or calculated from the direct observation. The ,,fe it warmth" of an object is rep laced in turn by the readings of a mercurry thermometer, a "caleulated value" that is "corrected for errors" . . . It is for this reason that reports of scientific investigation become increasingly hard for the layman to follow. It is not merely that the scientist has come gradually to discover unusual and hidden phenomena; the cause of the obscurity is still more to be found in the transformations imposed on common-sense concepts by the criterion of pub Zic veri fiabi Zi ty. 114 What Black is here drawing our attention to is the increasing mathematization of the observation statements used by scientists. In fact, it is partially for this reason that mathematics is popularly regarded as the tool of the sciences. I will, however, argue shortly that mathematics has a much more fundamental role to play in the empirical sciences. THE ACID TEST Thus far I have been discussing only scientific observation. Scientific explanation, however, involves much more than mere observation statements. In fact what is observed is often •explained' in terms of what is, in principle, unobservable. A scientific theory may, for example, make reference to such unobservables as electrons, genes, the " ... we begin with certain vaguely formulated ideas about the way things are and how the world works 3 giving us a certain horizon of expectations about what will happen in given 6 �circumstances. This we make more precise by constant refinement as we find reasons for rejecting those parts of our vague view of the world which do not fit in with our further experience ... laws of nature are always provisional, their temporary acceptance meaning that they have not yet provided any grounds for their own rejection. " 7 The second consequence of this view of scientific explanation is that the validity of the empirical sciences is ultimately dependent upon pure mathematics. The mathematician and philosopher, Bertrand Russel1, in his famous essay on 1 Mathematics and the Metaphysicians' offers the following definition of pure mathematics: "Pure mathematics consists entirely of assertions to the effect that~ if such and such a proposition is true of anything, then such and such another proposition is true of that thing. It is essential not to discuss whether the first proposition is really true, and not to mention what the anything is, of which it is supposed to be true. Both these points would belong to applied mathematics. We start, in pure mathematics, from certain rules of inference, by which we can infer that if one proposition is true, then so is some other proposition ... Thus mathematics may be defined as the subject in which we never know what we are talking about, nor whether what we are saying is true. " 8 Since I am suggesting that the validity of scientific explanation depends upon the kind of logico-mathematical arguments Russell is discussing here, it follows that mathematics is not merely the tool of the empirical sciences, but is rather at the very basis of their reliability. NECESSITY FOR COMPETING HYPOTHESES But is my suggestion correct? Is scientific explanation based on the modus tollens argument mentioned above? Is science the constant search for observations which will falsify its hypotheses and theories? Of course, the position as I have stated it is grossly oversimplified. The scientist, quite rightly, would not allow one observation, or set of observations, to falsify a given theory. He must first have a competing hypothesis from which the observation made can be deduced (explained?). Further in referring to the statementform 'if p then q' I have been talking as if 1 q 1 stands for observation statements and premiss-set 1 p 1 stands only for statements making up scientific theories. However, something must also be said about law-like statements and statements describing the antecedent conditions of the phenomena described by 1 q 1 • The account of scientific explanation that I am suggesting would not be complete and could not be defended unless sc:rnething was said about all the above. But this, the reader will be relieved to see, is completely beyond the scope of this short paper. As the French philosopher, Voltaire, said somewhere "The surest way to be a bore is to leave nothing.unsaid." Actually what Voltaire said was "Le secret d'@tre ennuyeux c'est de tout dire" but I prefer the rather l i bera 1 English translation. As I said above I cannot offer conclusive proof that my description of the logic of scientific explanation is correct. I will, however, offer some evidence to show that I am, at least, on the right track. I wi 11 not appeal, as I might, to the actual practices of the older established sciences such as physics and chemistry. It will, I think, be more revealing to �look at what an exponent of a relatively young science has to say about what he is up to. This will be revealing because a person in this position is still, in effect, trying to win acceptance of his discipline as a genuine field of scientific inquiry. The science of Theoretical Linguistics, compared to say Physics, is still in its infancy - if indeed it has passed the fetal stage. One of its best known practitioners, Noam Chomsky, is most concerned that his linguistic theories be accepted as bona fide scientific theories. In order to gain this acceptance, Chomsky argues, rather convincingly, that his principle of universal grammar, his deep structure of all languages, is in fact " ... an empirical hypothesis, falsifiable by factual evidence". 9 THE LIMITATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION I have presented a brief sketch of what I think a scientific explanation is and I have offered some support for this position. I now wish to draw attention to what I regard as two important shortcomings of scientific explanation. The first is, in fact, a problem with the nature of scientific observation. As I have noted, the scientist must be objective - his observations must be limited to those which can be repeated by any trained observer. I suggest, however, that when the scientist turns to the study of himself, or of man per se, as opposed to some aspect of man such as his body, this demand for objectivity hinders rather than aids the investigation. For when the investigator or the observer becomes the investigated or the observed, he tends to lose his essential characteristic - his subjectivity, the fact that he is, or can be, an observer. The result of this sort of exercise is usually some kind of behaviouristic psychology where the subject becomes a mere object. In fact what usually results is the odd sort of schizophrenia illustrated by the opening passages of this paper, in which I did not go so far as to treat myself as an 8 object but merely as another subject. In consulting the author of this paper I find that he agrees with me, at least on this point. Would it be logically possible for him to disagree with me on any point? 10 My second worry about scientific explanation is a rather more genera one. We normally think of explanation as the reduction of the unfamiliar to the familiar. That is, the explanation offered has to be more familiar than that which we set out to explain. But scientific explanation seems to do the very opposite. It takes some quite ordinary familiar event and 1 exp1ains 1 it in terms of unobservable theoretical constructs. Perhaps what my worry comes to is simply a request that the explanation offered, itself be ~xplained. However, I think that most practicing scientists would give a rather pragmatic answer to this request saying, in effect, that if we require that everything be explained, we will, in fact, explain nothing. Nevertheless, I for one cannot seem to shake the belief that no explanation can be ultimately satisfactory if it leaves something unexplained. In conclusion, then, I am suggesting that scientific explanation does not represent the condition of optimum development or final goal of our understanding and knowledge of the physical universe. However, let us not forget, it does represent the beginning. FOOTNOTES 1I will, however, also say something in passing, however misl about the formal sciences, s mathematics and logic. 2 As quoted in Max Black, Critical �Thinking, (New York, 1955), p. 357. 3 Ibid., p. 360. 4 Ibid., p. 361. FACT AND HYPOTHESIS - Irving Marmer Copi The job of science, we all know, is to discover facts; but a haphazard collection of facts cannot be said to constitute a science. To be sure, some parts of science may focus on this or that particular fact. A geographer, for example, may be interested in describing the exact confiruration of a particular coastline, or a geologist in the precise nature of rock strata in a particular locality. But in the more advanced sciences, bare descriptive knowledge of this or that particular fact is of little importance. The scientist is eager to search out more general truths, of which particular facts are instances and for which they constitute evidence. Isolated particular facts may be known - in a sense by direct observation. That a particular released object falls, that this ball moves more slowly down an inclined plane than it did when dropped directly downwards, that the tides ebb and flow, all these are matters of fact open to direct inspection. But the scientist seeks more than a mere record of such phenomena; he strives to understand them. To this end he seeks to fonnulate general laws which state the patterns of all such occurrences and the systematic relationships between them. The scientist is engaged in a search for the natural laws according to which all particular events occur aoo the fundamental principles which underlie them. Since the point of the argument is to deny the truth of 1 p 1 it is called modus tollens from the Latin 1 tollere 1 meaning to deny. ~or a discussion, see I.M. Copi, Introduct~on to Logic, (New York, 1972), pp. 234 f. 6 Se~, for example, Karl R. Popper, The Log~c of Scientific Discovery, (London, 1968); and Conjectures and Refutations; 5 The GrOlJth of Scientific KnOlJledge, (London, 1963). 7 R. Harre, An Introduction to the Logic of the Sciences, (London, 1965), p. 133. 8 Bertrand Russell, Mysticism and Logic (London, 1963), p. 59. ' 9 Noam Chomsky, Problems of KnOlJledge and Freedom, (New York, 1971), p. 23. 1 °For an account of some other paradoxes that can result from applying scientific explanation to human behaviour see: C.S. Rip 1ey, "Why Determinism Cannot Be True Dialogue, Vol. XI, March, 1972, pp. 59-68. 11 _Dr. Rabb is an assistant professor of Ph~lo~ophy here at Lakehead University. Born ~n Kenora, he studied philosophy at Carleton University (Ottawa), Queen's Unive~sity (Kingston) and.the University of Ed~nburgh. He has publ~shed articles and ~eviews on a wide variety of philo~oph~cal_concepts and topics including ~mag~nat~on, memory, belief, the self, materialist theories of mind, our knowledge of material objects and nineteenth century German Idealism. He is a member of the Canadian Philosophical Association, the Mind Association and the Aristotelian Society. He is admired and liked by his colleagues in the University who appreciate his even-tempered disposition. He has a profound knowledge of philosophy and is always ready to speak on the subject with great fluency. Irving Mormer Copi [ 1917 - ] ij ~~ was educated at University of Michigan where he too is doctorole in 1948. • • Taught for one year at Illinois· returned to Michig.51n. Has written on logjc, scientific methoa and the philosophy ot language. 9 �THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN EVERYDAY THOUG By E. S . Bodz in CURIOSITY AND CRITICISM Despite the ever-widening gulf between scientists and non-scientists, it is sti11 true, as William James once observed, that the only important intellectual difference between the habitual drunk and the compulsive scholar is the point at which they stop asking questions. The curiosity of the child can become more intense with time, or it can be channeled into resignation and passive acceptance. When the young child defiantly asks why he should not climb onto the back of a chair, he may painfully learn something about centers of gravity or he may meet with an equally painful lesson about authority; and while either of these lessons might discourage him or whet his curiosity all the more, he has at least posed a question that had to be asked. As we grow, thousands of similar questions beg for answers, even if we do not devote much time to formal study. Our reluctance to continue to ask certain kinds of questions - the kinds that specialists ·alone can cope with - should surely not deter us from asking questions altogether. And if we cannot all be professiona1 scientists, so long as we learn about life generally we can confront its lessons with the same critical attitude that the scientist brings to bear upon his. A number of striking parallels can be drawn between the critical method of the scholar and that of any thinking person. For example, the child mentioned above, whose chair has tipped over, will learn no more initially than to avoid climbing on that chair in that way. His experience at first wi11 tell him nothing about sofas or about counterbalances. Since his knowledge is of 1 i mi ted scope, it is of 1 i mi ted usefulness as well. Eventually, he will be able to do far more with the knowledge that he can climb anywhere on any chair if a heavy enough weight holds the seat down. This information can be tested and confirmed in a variety of situations. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS MAY ~E INVALID If we each had to go through this kind of process for all our conclusions, we would know far less than we do. Luckily, we come to depend on the experience of our predecessors and to accept their findings as our own. In other wo.rds, the individual accommodates his own knowledge to a scientific tradition much larger than himself. He realizes that if humanity had never taken the liberty of assuming it was right until all risk of error was past, mankind would sti11 be back in the stone age. As a group, men have always acted as if certain bits of knowledge were true, and some of them actually have been. So the individual for his part assumes that the general assumptions of the past are correct. Of course, they are not. Much in the same way as an individual might reflect upon the lessons of his youth, each age perceives the formulations of the past to be at best a collection of over-simp1ifications, partial truths, and useful errors. Knowledge is always being refined and made more precise, even radica11y·a1tered on occasion. Recently, for example, cu1tura1 historians have replaced the vague traditional term 11 romanticism 11 with 11organ i ci sm 11 , which describes a process and a method generally believed in and used during the ear y years of the.nineteenth century. The new concept provides a more precise, orderly way of uniting such diverse figures as Herder, Keats, Rousseau and Emerson. Understanding the implications of this paradox - that we must accept the past if we are to grow as indi10 �viduals, but that we must constantly re-examine traditional conclusions or stagnate as l!omo sapiens - is the underlying basis of a rational, critical view of life. As thinkers we walk a line; sometimes we fall over on the side of certitude, and sometimes on the side of skepticism. As we have seen, accepting too much rif the past is just as likely to draw us into error as is rejecting too much. To develop a critical perspective is to realize this, and to avoid both errors. CONSTANT RE-VERIFICATION IS irresponsible of us simply to admit 1ife 1 s complexity and to leave the examination of 1ife to professional thinkers. Dr. Bodzin has never believed in the traditional distinctions among academic disciplines, nor in the isolation of academic life from life as a whole. His career has seen him move from rabbinical training to physical education to philosophy~ the field in which he ultimately received his undergraduate degree. As a graduate student in English, he wrote a doctoral dissertation treating an aspect of American cultural history, in which he came close to avoiding any mention of literature. Currently Assistant Professor of English at Lakehead University, he considers improved judgment and the development of critical method to be more worthwhile goals for his students than the acquisition of any particular subject matter. Students hold him in the highest esteem: he is demanding and critical. Any~ne who has taken one of his courses knows that he gives superb academic value for money. NECESSARY As the above example from cu1tura1 history suggests, the methods of social science can be as crucial to everyday thought as those of the exact sciences. We do well to learn from exact science not to accept one demonstration of a discovered hypothesis, but to constantly re-verify it in the light of subsequent discovery; similarly, once we interpret and evaluate our own experience, we should be willing, like social science, to modify that vision whenever necessary. It is a truism of our time that this is a relatively open-minded age - we tolerate and do not dogmatize. But in developing habits of thought, especially in regard to interpretation and evaluation, most of us accept some unyielding attitudes. We do not tolerate intolerance, for example. Thus, even openmindedness has its 1imits. Few of us will wish to define those 1 imits because not everybody is James 1 s compulsive scholar. But whatever the scope of our investigations, our questions arise because understanding some of our experience is important to us. Science in its broadest sense that is, all knowledge - has become a complex and highly demanding pursuit. Only a part of it is available to the layman who has not given over his life to study and discipline. We all stop asking questions at some point; but life is too important for us to stop too soon. It would be DEFINITION OF DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE - John Stu a rt Mi 11 It has . . . been held by some writers that all ratiocination rests in the last resort on a reductio ad absurdum , since the way to enforce . assent to it, in case of obscurity, would be to show that if the conclusion be denied we must deny some one at least of the premises, which, as they are all supposed true, would be a contradiction. And, in accordance with this, many have thought that the peculiar nature of the e~idence_of ratiocination consisted 1n the impossibility of admitting the premises and rejecting the conclusion without a contradiction in terms. 11 �SCIENCE and APPLE PIE By Jim Wheeler Of Science, Webster says: "Science - a branch of knowledge especially one concerned with establishing and systematizing facts, principles and methods .... Let's look at the reactions of the one person we all know -ME, for it's the ME's who graduate from high school year after year. It's the ME's who stand on the threshold of decision. Well, it sure smells good out there! There's the smell of freedom, new cars, a full time job, marriage, and maybe even University. What to do? What to do? My own exit from high school I must admit came as a pleasant shock to me. My physics marks prompted.the guidance department to suggest I should pursue a career in electronics, and so I did to everyone's satisfaction, including my own. I must say, however, I was guided to a decision with blinkers on: as for those who supplied the blinkers and did the guiding, I thank God you were right in my case, for there must be some who still wonder: 11Why am I doing this? How did I get hepe? 11 For the rest of this article, I 1 m going to give you the highlights of seventeen years as seen from the inside looking out. My taste of the pie. My first job was with DeHavilland aircraft in a division manufacturing electrical power supplies. I counted meters and other electrical equipment and kept them ready for use (by someone else!). 11 Everyone starts at the bottom 11 I'd been told so many times that it came as no surprise, and I didn 1 t resent any of my "bottom jobs 11 as I recall. Four years later I was pretty well dry behind the ears and had taken part in the flight test of DeHavilland 1 s new aircraft the Caribou. Its letters were CF-KTK-x'- and I 1 11 tell you the first day it flew I was the proudest emp oyee they had. My contribution was only some minor instrumentation, but you would have thought I 1 d designed half the aircraft myself: I suppose every employee watching that first flight must have been just as proud. looking back over those first few years, I must say I was very happy with Science, because had been allowed to put the fundamentals I 11 Sounds like a filing clerk working in the middle of the Sahara Desert It's like describing an egg as a spheroid - ridiculous - if you are hungry! The best way by far to describe science, if you want any nourishment out of it, is from the inside out with words like delicious, aZZ- consuming, unexpected, innovative. What's delicious about science? It's the apple pie fresh. out of the oven. Just by looking a( it your mouth begins to water ... "just a small taste 11 , you say ... but there is no such thing for us apple pie 1overs. "What piece to cut?" - 11 What shape?" - 11 What size?" These are questions that only the eater can answer. If you can 1 t ask: "How does it taste?" and get a reasonable answer, then take a small slice to sample yourself - certainly don't leave it untouched, for you may find it indescribably delicious. How do you sample the apple pie and give an honest opinion? Well, let's list some of the do 1 s and don't's. Perhaps the most important one is: Do approach it with an open mind and the honest desire to render a just decision no matter what it is. Do savour the flavour of each mouth· ful accumulating your impressions until the plate is clean, then render your decision. Don 1 t gulp it down too quickly. You may end up choking. Don't precede the taste by eating a strong onion ... the true flavour will never get through. Don't take such a small piece that the taste is too fleeting to decide. 12 �thing literally exploded (due to a faulty component we eventually found out), but for the next hour I' 11 bet there were some misgivings about having hired me. Every time something similar to that incident happens and, believe me, things do go wrong in laboratories from time to time, I 1 d have sold my slice of Science for a nickle and given change to boot. These incidents are, thank God, few and far between but they nevertheless occur, so for those people starting out thinking that Science is a hard factual life equipment is made and labs are staffed by people like you and I and that's what makes laboratory life sweet and sour, exciting and depressing. My stay at United was one of the most taxing and yet pleasurable periods in my workcareer. Here I was, with not only my education to draw on, but also several years of related experience, and I was being asked to use every bit of it. I went from design job to design job usually suggesting or developing instruments that made the test engineer 1 s job easier. The test engineers ran the jet engines in large test areas called 11 t es t ce 11 s 1 1 and i t was the i r job to test a new seal, or a new fuel system or a new propeller or thousands of other things that go into a modern aircraft engine. It was my job to make sure the answers they got were correct. Exciting, you had better believe it! Imagine yourself involved as I was with up to ten such tests all going on at the same time. By this stage we were using two aircraft as test vehicles, one a helicopter on 11 tie-down 11 tests at the plant and the other a Beech 18 aircraft flying out of an airport over 35 miles away. There were about eighteen of us by this time a11 doing the same general job but each specializing in one aspect or another. I must have made a favourable impression as things progressed because I became the supervisor of this group and asyou can again guess even more involved in not only my own work, but that of everyone else. had learned in school into practice to the profit of both my employer and se 1f. About this time you could say I 1 d eaten my first slice of pie and had savoured every mouthful. There were outside influences by this time that prompted me to apply to United Aircraft in Montreal for the position of Instrumentation Designer. United Aircraft were developing a new turbine engine and were putting together an experimental engineering department. I should tell you how I almost missed this one completely. I had written to the company in Longueui 1, just outside of Montreal, and by return mail was told an interviewer by the name of Thompson would be at the Royal York and would be expecting me at 2:00 p.m. Shining, clean and nervous, I appeared .... no Thompson, they never heard of him. Was I ever disappointed! I returned home, down in the dumps and finally decided to phone the company direct, and ask them why they were so insensitive that they could change their mind about the interview and not even tell me. Well - it appeared they sent a last minute replacement when Thompson caught the flu and the new interviewer couldn't get in touch with me. As a result I rushed back to the hotel and was interviewed as he packed, paid his bill, and caught a plane for Montreal .... I got the job and within two weeks was working near Montreal. Every new employee likes to make a good impression on his boss during his first few weeks, and I was no exception. One day during the first week, a shiny new calibration furnace and control system was delivered and because I was experienced with this type of equipment I was asked to put it into operation and set up a series of procedures for its use by less technical personnel. All went well the first day, but the second day the 13 �one of a group of three on developing and f1 ight testing C.P. I. 1 s "Crash Position lndicators 11 • My job was still trying to measure things, and I spent almost as much time flying as I did on the ground. You think this sounds exciting, I'll bet -well, I get air sick -not sick sick, just woozy which is almost worse, and the hardest thing to do is finish the job when your stomach is bent on taking over your mind. There were exciting moments here and the team atmosphere was perhaps the strongest I had ever been in. I had by now eaten enough of the pie to be a connoisseur of sorts and while this pie was definitely right for me there were slices that I have a preference for. After I had been with the Council only one and a half years, a friend with whom I had gone through high school came to Ottawa and offered me a job at Lakehead University and to add to the offer I would also be allowed to continue my education to any degree I wanted at no expense to myself. Well, needless to say, I came, perhaps more because it was 11 home 11 than anything else, but anyway I did come. Since then I have obtained my degree, and still, I hope performed in a worthwhile fashion for my employer. Is this the end of my wandering? Maybe - but it is only another slice of my pie, and I 1 m still looking forward to my next bite! learned several very important truths about life in this job - one is make sure there is always a clear I line of communications be-tween people because isolated people do not pull their fair share of the load. The other one is when handing out work after you select the people you want to do the job .... let them do it! Hold regular meetings to discuss progress by all means but don 1 t stop progress just because it doesn't follow your exact line of thought. This last one is the one most often forgotten. We l 1 , I co u 1d t e 11 a 11 sort s of stories about building new test facilities, hiring new personnel, forming the flight test group, and the two days of pre-flight medical tests everyone went through in Toronto not forgetting the time the test engine exploded - this all served to flavour the work and mold the people into an exciting happy team and I was, I can tel1 you, a very proud member. I 1 d eaten another large slice of the pie and was ready for more. About this time I moved to Kingston, Ontario to take up a similar position with a small company developing a free piston engine. It was while we were in Kingston my family started school, we built our first house, and I sold the patent rights to an instrument I had designed. My stay in Kingston was less hectic than Montreal and while I stayed there almost five years my work took on a routine colour that I rather enjoyed. We spent weekends on picnics, planting lawns and gardens, swimming, fishing, tobogganing and skating. I started to have a new approach to work that allowed me more free time for other things. I cou 1d st i 11 dive in and get completely immersed but now could also climb out and dry off pretty quickly. In the late 1960 1 s I moved once again, this time to the flight research section of the National Research Council in Ottawa, so I was once again back with airplanes. This time I worked as Jim Wheeler is a Master in the Retraining and Technology Divisions of Confederation College. His career has Zed him through Canada's Missile and Aircraft Industries where his enthusiasm for Science has grown with each new assignment. His educational experience includes a diploma from Ryerson PolytechnicaZ Institute as well as a BSc from Lakehead University. His non-paying hobbies include amateur radio (VE3EEG) and boating which he enjoys with his three daughters and three sons. 14 �BASIC AIR NAVIGATION A LOS ? By Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw PEOPLE GET LOST BECAUSE THEY WILL NOT NAVIGATE NAVIGATIONAL AIDS The basic equipment (which must be kept in serviceable condition) is: a) Up-to-date maps of the area of flight b) Compass: properly swung a) Altimeter d) Air Speed Indicator e) Turn and Bank Indicator f) Ruler, Protractor and Dividers g) Several Pencils h) Accurate Watch or Clock. Before the days of Marco Polo, caravans used to cross the deserts of Afghanistan and Mongolia, arriving at their camping sites and destination with remarkable accuracy. How? By using an amazing Chinese magic needle which was on a leaf floating in a bowl of water. It always pointed in one direction if the bowl was kept perfectly still. It was the earliest magnetic compass. The famous early navigators of Portugal who explored the African coast could find their latitude using a crude forerunner of a sextant called an Astrolabe invented originally by the Greeks. The sense of the foregoing is that men, for centuries, travelled great distances over unexplored land and seas using the crudest of simple instruments and highly developed instincts for conditions of sea, wind and weather. What is most important is that they got to their destination and returned!! Why then in this day of highly refined electronic and other navigating devices, which are so numerous that the buyer has to decide which combination he needs, do modern pilots get lost in rather large numbers? Because they get lost, air and ground searches for downed aircraft cost the taxpayer millions of dollars annually. The reasons are numerous, such as flying in an area with few or no electronic aids to navigation, onboard navigating equipment not working properly, flying in weather too severe for the pilot's capability to list but a very few. Nevertheless I contend that most pilots flying over unpopulated areas, such as our northern bush country, get lost because of failure to use good basic air navigation methods. Common additional 11 luxury 11 items: a) Calculator b) Directional Gyro a) Artificial Horizon d) Sextant and Appropriate Star Tables e) Two-Way Radio. With the above, many of the early pilots have circumnavigated the earth blazing trails which are now established airline routes. HOW DISASTERS OCCUR Not too long ago I was in a small plane taking off from one northern point for another several hundred miles away. After a while, the pilot turned to me and said, "What time did we Zeave?" This startled me and I asked him for the map. There was some scrambling around and after several minutes he handed me a map of the area -which was blank - that is, there was no flight 1 ine or other information pertaining to our flight on it! We didn't get lost, but that is precisely how these disasters commence. Lack of knowledge of the art of basic air navigation, lack of proper pre-flight preparation, lack of proper in-flight navigation, poor airmanship and laziness are the root causes of lost aircraft. Familiarity breeds contempt and pilots who fly to and fro, back and over the same route tend to relax their vigilance until one day they get t weather - out of sight of the ground; unknown winds push them off course. Eventually, they may see the ground again, it is unfamiliar to them, 15 �are lost, fuel runs out HOW !!QI ........... I each leg of your flight, flying time for each leg in hours and minutes, fuel consumption for each leg of flight, including leg to alternate destination, and record this data on a suitable card for in-flight reference. If winds are not available, then the procedure to be used will be referred to later; see InF1i g ht , i t em {8) . (9) Calculate fuel required for flight to destination, plus fuel to alternate, plus fuel for holding pattern at destination as laid down in Air Regulations. (It is different for piston and jet aircraft.) (10) File flight information as soon as possible with nearest aviation authority, plus time of departure. (11) Ensure compass is serviceable and properly swung. (12) Set clock or watch accurately. (13) Check availability of maps (in proper sequence), calculator, ruler, protractor and pencils. (14) Check functioning of radio and note frequencies to be used enroute. TO GET LOST What should a pilot, particularly one flying small aircraft over 11 bush 11 type country or over new routes, do to minimize his chances of getting lost and maximize his chances of arriving safely and on time at his destination after an enjoyable flight? The following is an effective pattern of procedure which may be considered basic. It will take longer to write it out than to do it. Pre-Flight: (1) Using up-to-date aeronautical maps, draw a line (called the track) from the point of departure to destination or first stopping point or to each turning point. (2) From departure point, draw straight lines at 5° and 10° angles each side of your track. Extend these lines for at least 50 miles. Draw them on the destination side of your departure point. (3) At destination, repeat procedure with 5° and 10° lines drawn on the departure side of destination point. (4) Using dividers, mark track in 10 or 20 nautical mile intervals. (5) Measure distance to be flown in nautical miles. (6) Study route and 20 miles either side of track for prominent features, such as lakes, high hills, prominent river courses, etc., etc., and circle or indicate on map those features you plan to look for or will recognize at a glance. (7) If available, obtain latest weather forecast for your route area, destination and alternate. If avai 1able, obtain forecast winds for route at the altitudes you plan to fly plus winds from surface to at least 5000 feet above your planned flight altitude. (8) Using above data, carefully calculate your compass headings for In-Flight: (1) After take-off, circle and set course over airport or from predetermined start point. (2) Set clock or note time over airport or start point. (3) Hold predetermined compass headings and read map carefully. After 5 or 10 minutes, mark exact position on map. This will indicate drift off course. Take clock reading. (4) Refer to your 5° and 10° lines and you can estimate quite accurately the number of degrees you are off course. (5) Alter heading towards your track the same number of degrees and you will make good a line parallel to your track. (6) If you alter course towards your track, double the number of degrees and for the same amount of time taken to your first map check you will arrive back on your track. (7) Now alter course back towards your original heading by the same number of degrees you were off course at first map 16 �check point. You will now hold very close to your track. (8) After regaining your track, take ti me between marked i nte rva 1s. (Read the map continuously.) Using your ca1cu1ator, find the ground speed of aircraft. Continuing to use calculator or.just ~lain pencil, paper and simple ar1thmet1c, recalculate estimated time of arrival at destination or turning points. [With practice, this can all be done in your head.and very quickly, too. Using calculator and this data ' new wind direction and wind speed can be determined to recalculate new headings, if you wish to be more professional.] (9) Continue to repeat sequences (4) to (8), inclusive, for the rest of the flight as flight situation warrants. (10) If weather drops toward the minimum for your licensed capability or type of aircraft, either return to departure point or look for nearest suitable landing area. By the way, if you follow my advice and still get lost, remember - NEVER LEAVE YOUR AIRCRAFT. If you do, you will greatly increase the chance of losing your life. Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw graduated from The Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, in 1934 and joined the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1935. J?U,ring his career, he spent 19 years ~n flying and navigation instruction rea~h~ng the position of Chief of ' Tra~n~ng for the R.C.A.F. He ended his career as Commander of the R.C.A.F. Air Division in Europe which was equipped with supersonic 104 aircraft in the nuclear role. Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw has been President of The Confederation Coll~ge of Applied Arts and Technology s~nce 1967. REMEMBER. "There are old pi lots and there are bold pilots, but there are no old bold pi lots." Just sit and TRANSPORT MINISTER MARCHAND RELEASES REPORT ON FATAL ST. JAMES AIR CRASH: OTTAWA - The crash of a Beechcraft 18 aircraft at St. James, Manitoba, with the death of the pilot and his passengers, eight school children, last June 24, was caused by loss of engine power and the pilot's failure to respond effectively to the situation. The report of the Transport Ministry listed the following conclusions: have a cup of coffee until conditions improve. Many experienced pilots and navigators will spot deficiencies in the above. Many will have all kinds of additional 11 tricks of the trade". Agreed - but the basis of this dissertation is to demonstrate that with m~ni~al _equipment, common sense, selfd~sc~pl~ne and reasonable application of basic air navigation, the chances of getting lost can be made negligibly sma 11. If I were asked in what area an amateur pilot or bush pilot (or any other kind of pilot) should become as proficient as possible, I would have to say meteorology, with particular emphasis on weather phenomena during all seasons pertaining to his part of the country. After that, if he uses his head he will enjoy more - The aircraft's left engine lost power after take-off from Winnipeg International Airport. - The pilot did not follow prescribed emergency procedures after the initial power loss. - The right engine lost power because the pilot turned the right fuel selector valve to the 11 off 11 position. - The pilot had not been adequately trained in emergency procedures. "Following Winds and Happy Landings". 17 �"Wolf" Ozburn (see Caret I) and John Butler (right) ... assemble ... The Tower. "Some difficulty was experienced . . . The completed tower looks most impressive" Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw CF - KTK - X was one of Jim Wheeler's assignments. "There are old pilots and bold pilots but . ... " " ... I was the proudest employee they had" �THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN OBSERVAT!ON TOWER By John R. Butler "lit 0010 hrD., the party headed out into the teeth of a 30 m.p.h. wind. 'The temperature was 5°F., and this coupled with the wind., produced a chill factor of -55°F - the snow felt Zike hot needles on the face. " we get cracking. A JS tracked-vehicle was rented with a truck large enough to carry the structure along with ropes, ladders and a rock drill. We managed to squeeze the tower into the truck (disassembled, of course) and the party then proceeded to Ray Trowbridge 1 s cabin which lies at the foot of Black Bay. This was to be our headquarters. The assembly party varied in number from time to time, but fortunately, there were never less than eight members comprised of faculty, students and staff. On the morning of the great day, a party of five (three on snow machines, two on the J5) started on an exploratory trip to the island to check the snow and ice conditions. Visibility was down to about a hundred yards, and the crews on the small machines were to run ahead of the JS to check ice thickness and the depth of slush under the snow. Unfortunately, we had no prior knowledge of the performance of the JS and we rapidly discovered two problems. The top speed was 2 m.p.h. and it was difficult to steer in a straight line. As a result, our course was like the trajectory of a curve ba l 1 ! The island loomed out of the driving snow to an impressive height as we finally approached it. We found it impossible to climb to the top with the machines, as the lower rocks were glazed with ice from the early winter storms, and so we inspected the tower site on snowshoes. As everything seemed to be in order, we returned to base to prepare for the big haul the next day. The round trip time for this journey was seven hours in the most miserable of conditions. Next morning, the party assembled ,early in clear and sunny weather. The above sounds more 1 ike an excerpt from Scott 1 s diary than a description of the conditions encountered by a work party from the Science Faculty adventuring out to erect a bird observation tower on a remote island in Black Bay. The project started when Dr. J. P. Ryder of the Biology Department asked if my department could construct an observation tower in connection with his study of gulls on Granite Island, six miles offshore in Black Bay, on Lake Superior. Apparently, the gulls are very nervous and conventional blinds are ineffective - the slightest noise will disturb the birds during the nesting period. It was hoped that a sol id, insulated cabin on top of a tower would enable the colony to carry on with the minimum of upset (and give a modicum of comfort to the observers!). The tower was completed about the middle of February, 1972. Its completion finally brought to a head the nagging problem - how to get it to Granite Island? Several ideas were proposed, most of them impractical. The Canadian Armed Forces, when asked for help, did not flatly reject the request, but the tower had to be assembled before the birds returned to the island to nest and the Services were not prepared to indicate when they could help. The fact that we had a 3,000 pound load to move and the knowledge that the snow conditions generally start to deteriorate rapidly in March suggested that 19 �Deloney I. D 8 I o c k IJ Scimming Vt. 8 , t"\.. '-'- 0 0 y • Foxhound Granite I. Rk. Green /. 5 MILES 20 �(This often occurs in Northwestern Ontario the day following a storm.) We quickly loaded the tower and cabin components on a massive sleigh which was borrowed for the occasion from a local farmer. Almost before sunup, the party now numbering ten distributed on four snow machines and the JS with sleigh behind ran down the bank onto the lake. The lake surface was very irregular as the wind tends to form the snow into a series of waves - very much like sand in the desert. The trip out to the island was fairly uneventful. The major problem was the lack of steering response from the JS. When a course correction was needed, the sleigh had to be disconnected, while the machine was maneuvered into position! Also there was some concern that the old sleigh would collapse, as it was sinking very deeply into the snow and the towing machine had difficulty at times to keep moving. The party arrived at the island about noon, and after a snack, started unloading and transporting the materials up the side of the island where a cache was made just below the summit. Not enough time was left that day to start erecting the tower, and so the party returned to camp and set about reloading the truck with the equipment that would not be required for assembly. Some difficulty was experienced in coaxing the J5 back onto the truck, since the snowbanks were either not high enough or too soft to maneuver the machine over the tailgate. A number of the party finally drove the truck and the JS to the Dorion Hotel where a loading ramp was available. The JS had no lights, and so it was fortunate that the O.P.P. were not encountered on this occasion! The next two trips to the island were conducted in fine, almost warm weather. On the following weekend, the party successfully erected the tower components, after the site was cleared of snow and all parts had been carried to the top of the hill. We had taken the precaution of including a gasoline-powered rock drill in our equipment, and our intrepid JS driver, Bud Russell, turned out to be an efficient hole puncher. On the final trip, a week later, a little more energy had to be expended as some of the cabin components were quite heavy and these had to be manually lifted twenty feet up the tower for assembly on the cabin floor. Luckily there was no wind blowing that day. The completed tower looks most impressive. It is very sound and is now weathering its second winter. Dr. Ryder is so.pleased with it that we have been commissioned to make another smaller installation for the McKenzie Delta. The whole operation was really quite enjoyable and illustrates the wide scope of the work undertaken by the University's technical staff. Mr. Butler is in charge of the Science Workshop of Lakehead University. He is responsible for the manufactui e of a 1JJide range of equipment 1JJhich is used by undergraduates and research 1JJorkers. One day, he is to be seen making a tiny, tiny instrument no larger than a lady's 1JJrist 1JJatch and the next day, he is 1JJorking on a major building project Zike the one described in his article. People like Mr. Butler are vital to the functioning of a good Faculty of Science and it is rare that they are able to describe their 1JJork to the public, not because they are ina~ticulate - it's just that nobody g~ves them the chance! 1 21 �THE USE OF AN OBSERVATION TOWER By John Ryder THE TOWER IS ESSENTIAL TO RESEARCH nize individuals. It is important for us to know where individuals are nesting, how many eggs are in the nest, how many fights an individual has and with whom, how many fights each individual wins and loses and most importantly, what part does fighting play in the success of a pair in hatching their eggs. You would be surprised that fighting and aggressive displays are very important attributes which can determine the success of a nest. In addition, we want to find out if the same birds come back to the same nest site each year and if they nest near to the same birds year after year. We can only answer these and other questions by watching marked undisturbed birds in their natural environment. The gulls get used to the tower. They actually sit on the roof during observation so that's pretty good proof that it works! After two or three hours in the tower using a scope to check tag numbers, the observer leaves because his observation efficiency rapidly declines after that amount of time. Observations are continued, genera 11 y on a da i 1y basis, in an effort, which may take years, to understand the workings of a complex animal society. The observation tower that Mr. Butler built is used in a project dealing with the 11 sociobiology 11 of Ring-billed Gulls. These birds are colonial nesting in large numbers close toge~her on a smal 1 island near Thunder Bay. There are about 1200 gull nests on the island so it is easy to rapidly obtain information we are looking for. Ring-billed Gulls are timid birds. If a person walks on the nesting area the birds take to the air and chaos prevails until the person leaves. Under these conditions, collecting biological data, especially about their behaviour, is impossible. This is where the overwhelming importance of the observation tower is realized. The observation tower is an extremely important tool of behavioural research conducted under natural, uncontrolled field conditions. It allows the investigator to observe animals behave normally and respond to the many environmental stimuli the same as they would with no person present. Individual items of information collected from watching undisturbed animals are valuable to the scientist when he pieces them together to determine how the organism he is studying has adapted to the environment in which it lives. Tower operation is fairly precise. ~he investigator enters the tower early 1n the morning. This initially disturbs the gulls so information cannot be collected for at least thirty minutes. During this time, the observer sits quietly in the tower so as not to redisturb the birds as they settle down on their nests. When the birds have settled down, the observer can then start collecting data. D~. Ryder is Assistant Professor of B~ology at Lakehead University where he teaches ornithology, boreal ecology and next year comparative vertebrate anatomy. His research inte~ests _involve the sociobiology of R~ng-b~lled Gulls and parasites of gull nests. The results of Dr. Ryd~r's research have been published ~n a number of scholarly journals and natural history magazines. DATA ARE COLLECTED ON MANY CHARACTERISTICS In our project we are marking birds with special tags so that we can recog22 �BIOLOGY FROM THE STUDENTS' EYE VIEW By Jean Pekkala and Frank Cartwright second, third and fourth year students for summer empl0yment in the field of one's choice, working on research projects being carried out by the professors. Besides the regular hours of class and studying, there are a great many activities one can participate in school-related or otherwise. Students are given almost a free hand as to what they would like to do for themselves or for the benefit of their Department or both. They can carry out a great number of projects under departmental supervision and it is up to the students involved to see to it that these extracurricular projects are consummated. After classes, we now have the newly formed Biology Club, which is looking for help, suggestions and most of all support from the student body, which is the essential stuff of which clubsare formed. The Club is planning various activities such as guest speakers, field trips, movies and socials whereby the students can meet the faculty and actually participate in the activities be they academically centered or otherwise. The total approach is not of overburdenment, for once interest has been PRO AND CON As science students in the Biology Department we find the program open in that it allows the choice of a wide scope of topics, be they plant or animal in nature. Once we had the essential introductory courses in first and second year Biology, we were then free in third and fourth year to choose our own courses in relation to our proposed post-graduate work. Most third and fourth year courses are half-term in duration. They have their pro and con as viewed by the students. The pro is that you can get a wide survey of selected topics in your chosen field, and by Christmas your first term subjects are all over and done with; then with the start of the new year one embarks on a study of completely new topics. The con is that an excess of knowledge is crammed into a limited amount of time. If a student has problems ~nd does not seek assistance, by the time he solves his problems, it may be too late to do well on his exams - which are finals! Some new core courses which run for the full year combat this problem. Lakehead University is not a big university and the classes are relatively small. Thus biology students have a more intimate contact with the professors, who are easily available to the students during the day. The labs are not only open in the daytime, but in the evenings and weekends, as we 11. shown on the student's side, faculty will do everything possible to aid the student to achieve a chosen goal. m THE STRESS WHEEL: The stress wheel is a planting design for test crops. It resembles the spokes of a huge wheel with the rim removed. Single rows, about thirty-five feet long, stretch out like the radii of a circle from a central point. The planted rows vary in width from narrow at the center to wider at the outside rim. Spacings are ., three feet at the end and narrow down to zero at the center of the wheel. During 1972 at Brandon, one wheel contained ninety-two rows or spokes. As you stand at the center, you can see at a glance how each variety in the test performs. EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES For third and fourth year students, there is a wide range of opportunities made available for 11 demonstrating 11 the laboratory portion of most of the courses offered: this enables one to put his knowledge combined with his own personal skills into use and use his acquired knowledge to teach others. There are also opportunities open to 23 �THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF BIOLOG STS By C. A. E1sey THE IMPORTANCE OF OPTIMIZATION out adversely affecting the complex and frequently sensitive ecosystems. It is therefore the responsibility of biologists to determine optimum utilization or harvest limitations and thus manage the resources on a sustained yie1d basis to provide opportunities for continuing outdoor recreation and resource development. The goal of the Ministry of Natural Resources is 11 to provide opportunities for outdoor recrea.tion and resource deve1opment for the continuous social and economic benefit of the people of Ontario and to administer, protect and conserve public lands and waters". Within the bounds of this statement lies the objective of the Outdoor Recreation Program 11 to provi de from public lands and waters and to encourage on other lands and waters: a wide variety of outdoor recreational opportunities accessible to and for the continuous benefit of the people of Ontario; the identification and conservation of unique or representative physical, biological, cultural and historica~ features of the province; a continuous contribution to the economy of Ontario from tourism and its related industries 11 • The objective of the Resource Products Program is "to provide an optimum continuous contribution to the economy of Ontario by stimulating and regulating the utilization of available supplies of fish, furbearers, minerals and trees by resource products industries". To attain these objectives, the program of the biologist is correlated with the program of the foresters, land managers, geologists and other ministries of government. ONE MOOSE PER SQUARE MILE In this part of Ontario we can consider that we are deali~g with a sensitive environment. In most places, soils are very thin with bedrock not far below. The fertility of what soils we have is low. We live in an adverse climate one that does not provide for optimum or maximum use of available fertility. Moose populations can be expected in our area to have an average density of 0.8 to 1.0 moose per square mile. This means that we can expect to have something a little less than 20,000 moose in Thunder Bay district. Good management suggests that we can harvest about 25% or between four and five thousand per year. We are now harvesting slightly less than 2,000 per year. However, because of access problems, some areas are being lightly harvested and other areas heavily harvested. In the interests of good management, it would be desirable to redistribute the harvest. How is this done? Management is trying to find an answer and that answer must, by objective, consider the needs (tourist industry, 7conomic Jobs, etc.) 1 as well as the recreational needs of the people of Ontario. The fur business is an economic The direat responsibility of biologists to the people of Ontario is to provide an optimum opportunity for reareation through fishing, hunting and viewing, and to aontribute to the eaonorrry of Ontario through tourism, aommeraial fishing and trapping. It is important that full utilization be achieved with24 �need for many people. To some it is a hobby as well. The trap-line manager is faced with the responsibility of designing a management program that will meet the economic needs, as well as biological requirements. Recreation is not a primary consideration in this program. FUR-PRICES - - -INCREASE --- Fur farmers are smiling on their way to the bank this year. Pr~ces have increased sharply and mink producers are optimistic that the market will remain firm. The return of strong prices will enable mink ranchers to pay off debts which accumulated during recent years, when prices sometimes sank below the cost of production. . A clearer assessment of production, demand and longer-term price trends will be available early in the year, particularly for wild furs. Fur prices normally fluctuate and, in the past, strong prices have often been followed by a sag as buyers fill their needs. This year, however, overall demand is strong and there are indications that the fur industry may be on a general upswing which will shore up prices. The reason for the increased demand is hard to pin-point, but there is speculation that incomes around the world are rising to the point where more consumers can afford the luxury of fur. Prices for ranched mink in December were about twenty-five per cent higher than a year earlier. The quantities of wild furs available are limited. All colors are in demand, but price increases are strongest for female pelts. These are smaller and lighter than the males, and thus are well suited for capes and jackets, currently popular retail items. The demand is very strong for furs from Canada's north, and competition by buyers from many countries has ~ushed prices to the highest levels in many years. Beaver pelts brought about thirtyfive per cent more this year, red fox almost one-hundred per cent more; lynx pelts set record prices; and coyote and racoon prices advanced nearly one-hundred per cent. FISHING IS IMPORTANT, TOO Our lakes in this area suffer from low fertility levels and a very short growing season. Because the chemical and physical characteristics of lakes vary from lake to lake, the productivity of lakes will vary. On the average, we can expect lake trout lakes to yield about one-quarter of a pound to one-ha1f pound per surface acre per year. Pickerel-pike lakes may yield about two to three pounds per acre per year. A sport fishery will contribute to both recreational and economic needs. A commercial fishery will contribute to the economic needs of a different group of people. If a fishery can withstand both angling and commercial fishing on a sustained yield basis, then it is obvious that both types of fishing shou1d co-exist. Here again the biologist is looking for that thin-line position where he is working within bio1ogica1 limitations to meet both the economic and recreational needs of the people of Ontario. In the nature of resource management, it is inevitable that there should sometimes be conflict of interest between branches of the same ministry and between minlstries. Such conflicts are ironed out by consultation. Mr. Elsey graduated from the University of Saskatchewan.in 1946 with an MSc degree in limnology. After graduating, he stayed on at the University of Saskatchewan for a year as an instructor. Since that time he has worked in Ontario (mainly in the north) as a biologist and fish and wildlife supervisor. 25 �Robert A. Ross Leslie Woodrow "Man's ingenuity knows no real bounds" "Every housewife washing clothes . .. is hindering the survival of man himself!" "0.8 to 7.0 moose per square mile!" �Jean Pekkala and biologists "There is a wide range of opportunities" Ran Ide ''The opening of culture can be achieved in education programs" Mr. Elsey (right) and friends "The fur business is an economic need for many people" (Courtesy, Chronicle Journal) �THE CATALYTIC REMOVAL OF AIR POLLUTANTS - QUO VADIS ? By Robert A. Ross conditions, the properties of the contaminant, the topography of the area, and the design and height of the stack or chimney through which the exhaust is discharged. Many of the exhaust components undergo reactions in the atmosphere and fall back to the earth as secondary products. A significant example of this phenomenon occurs in London, England in the absence of appreciable sunshine during winter when smoke and sulphur dioxide accumulate in damp, static air masses with the consequent conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid or sulfate compounds attached to smoke particles. Ultimately, with slow precipitation thousands of tons of sulfuric acid and filthy soot seep into the city with disturbing consequences on mortality rate, corrosion and erosion. of buildings and botanical plant 1 ifecycles. In the great London smog of 1952, four thousand deaths of people with respiratory diseases were attributed to this cause. Subsequent legislation compelling both the industrial and domestic use of smokeless sol id fuels has eased, but not entirely eradicated the problem. Since the concentrations of gaseous pollutants in air are considerably greater than those of particulate matter, most current research is devoted to the discovery and appl ication of methods designed to minimize and possibly e1 iminate deleterious gases from industrial effluents. Disregarding carbon dioxide, the most abundant air pollutants are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. The tolerance level for carbon monoxide is considered to be exceeded on exposure to 30 parts per hundred million, pphm, of the gas for more than eight hours. This level of exposure is not likely to occur in normal circumstances. Furthermore, carbon monoxide does not partake in HYGIENE: CAVEMAN TO ASTRONAUT Contrary to popular belief, problems associated with the disposal of sol id, liquid and gaseous waste products are not new but must have exercised the mind of Neanderthal man. The rudiments of elementary hygiene were not unknown, even then! The rapid growth of the materialistic needs and desires of our astronaut society in the past two decades has created waste and more waste and engendered an awareness of wastedisposal problems in the minds of both professional and amateur environmentalists. To most politicians, the pollution of the environment is almost a cause celebre! On the other hand, many industries find the costs of installing existing remedial processes so prohibitively expensive that plant closures are often considered, and thus employment is jeopardized. Such is the dilemma and challenge posed to our society by this huge issue. THE GUILTY SOURCES The particular problem of the contamination of the atmosphere is created mainly by the exhaust gases from chemical and metallurgical process plants, oil refineries, power plants, domestic and industrial heating processes and internal combustion engines. These contaminants may be emitted as particulate matter -- dust, smoke, and smog -- or as 1 trace 1 amounts of deleterious gases, often both types occur together. The gases may be poisonous, malodorous or even apparently innocuous. After exhaustion to the air, the contaminants usually do not fall within the immediate vicinity of the emitting source but are dispersed by the wind and are spread over an extensive fallout area. The nature of the dispersion process depends on several factors including meteorological 78 �any significant reactions after its emission and hence its removal from exhaust gases has received much less attention than that accorded to sulfur and nitrogen dioxides. magnitude of these removal tasks can be appreciated by noting that in the United States alone, near1y 29,000,000 tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted to the atmosphere in 1966 and for 1980, a potential figure of more than twice that amount can be estimated. costly platinum group catalysts which were firsts ied in the decomposition nitric oxide nearly fifty years ago! Of course, giant corporatio~s and interests are involved in activities and the various implications are truly extensive. THE NORTHWESTERN ONTARIO PROBLEM In Northwestern Ontario, the significant sources of air contamination are the pulp and paper mills. The malodorous components of the effluent gases are mainly hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans and organic disulfides. Hydrogen sulfide is possibly the most common offender of such gases with an odour threshold reported to be as low as 0.7 pphm. The gas is also extremely toxic since a level of 400 to 700 ppm may be dangerous to life after an exposure time of 30 to 60 minutes. In spite of recent efforts to eliminate the hazard, the gas can still be detected in the effluent from some chemical recovery plant emission stacks. A possible method for the removal of these sulfur gases is by catalytic oxidation, which can be followed by recovery of the sulfur dioxide formed. At Lakehead University an active research program, led by Dr. Walter Cook, has been initiated on this theme. A key feature of the study is the emphasis placed on the catalytic removal of the compounds to an effluent level below that of the odour threshold. The method would not be considered to be a success by the local population, at any rate, unless this were achieved! Using a series of mixed oxide cata1ysts supported on alpha-alumina, Dr. Cook has shown that hydrogen sulfide at 600 ppm in nitrogen/air mixtures can be almost completely oxidized to sulfur dioxide when passed once in a flowing stream over these materials at 200 to 320°C. The most ive catalyst that he has discovered so far, contains mo] A POSSIBLE REMEDY The choice of a method for partial or total removal of air contaminants depends on many factors including operation efficiency, feasibility and cost. Of the many techniques available for the reduction of pollution due to sulfur and nitrogen dioxides, the heterogeneous catalytic method presents a viable possibility. For example, sulfur dioxide may be converted to the trioxide in an oxidizing flue gas at high efficiencies when it is passed over a composite sol id catalyst containing transition metal oxides supported on alkalized silica gel. Subsequent operations may be introduced to produce sulfuric acid from the trioxide in a controlled way. An alternative catalytic oxidation process which originated in Japan involves mixing ammonia with oxidized sulphur dioxide in the flue gas to form ammonium sulfate over a vanadium pentoxide catalyst. Although the catalytic treatment of nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases from internal combustion engines is complicated by the presence of hydrocarbons and lead compounds, the method is still attractive since the principal products of the decomposition of the oxides are nitrogen and oxygen which can be vented safely to the atmosphere. Substantial current research activities by automobile manufacturers on catalytic methods of exhaust emission control seem to be emphasizing the use of 29 �lates, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and_ hydrocarbons. The information has been classi ed into five major categories of sources: industrial processes, fuel combustion in stationary sources, transportation sources, solid waste disposal and miscellaneous sources. The study is based on 1970 data and will be updated at regular intervals. This updating, combined with ongoi measurements of air pollution levels by surveillance networks throughout Canada, will give a clear indication of progress in the control of air pollution. Commenting on significant findings, Mr. Davis noted that transportation accounted for 57% of total air pollution emissions of 31.2 million tons. The Federal Government is actively engaged in the control of motor vehicle emissions. The inventory further confirms our concerns about air pollution from this source", Mr. Davis said. The inventory also shows that one industrial sector - primary copper and nickel - accounted for4.5 million tons, or 14% of total emissions in Canada. He noted that Environment Canada has been working closely with the Provinces in tackling this problem. Copies of this inventory, in summary form, are available to public on request. Write: The denum and cobalt oxides. One substantial bonus from this work has been the development of instrumental analytical methods for the deteciion of hydrogen sulfide in these low concentrations. Further studies in cooperation with Dr. Michael Jeanes are presently concerned with an examination of the reactivity and ~fficiency of the catalysts in the oxidation of organic sulfides and thiols using more com: plex carrier gas mixtures which reflect more closely on the actual composition of Kraft mill stack gases. This local example illustrates that environmental problems created by advanced technology can be solved by technology. Man's ingenuity knows no real bounds and undoubtedly there are better ways than that chosen. However, the question still remains-HOW MUCH ARE WE PREPARED TO PAY? 11 Formerly an industrial researcher for Unilever Limited and Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Dr. Ross came to Lakehead University from an academic post in Belfast, Northern Ireland in 1969, just when the current "troubles" in that province were starting. Now the Dean of Science at Lakehead University, he is the author of several papers on heterogeneous catalysis, technological and surface chemistry. He maintains that he is a hopeless golfer and a lazy gardener. Information Branch, Department of the Environment, Ottawa, K1A OH3 or telephone (819) 997-2944. Mlidii ■ @N d EF- A Canada-wide inventory of five major air pollutant emissions has been completed by Environment Canada. Announcing the findings of the study, Environment Minister Jack Davis noted that it was the first comprehensive nationwide inventory of its kind in Canada. Pollutants covered in the inventory are: sulphur oxides, particu- FLUENT: Pickle liquor or spent plating bath solutions can be treated to recover valuable metals (nickel, copper, zinc, silver, etc.) and to remove toxic compounds such as cyanides, chromates and phenols. Reverse osmosis, chemical precipitation and ion flotation techniques can be used to treat the effluent streams. 30 �DETERGENTS AND OUR WATER By Gordon Francis Most people feel that large industries are the main polluters of the environment. This may be true, but many housewives do not realize that they are also contributing to the deterioration of our waters. Every housewife washing clothes with a detergent is hindering the survival of aquatic 1 ife and in the end, man hi mse 1f ! When detergen~s are dumped into waterways, whether they are soft detergents (ones that break down • into their elements easily) or hard detergents (ones that take a long time to break down), they lower the oxygen content and may kill aquatic life, such as fairy shrimp, mayfly larva and other minute organisms. This life near the bottom of the food chain causes predators that feed on these organisms to die from starvation if they have not already died by suffocation. The Chemistry 40 class did a series of phosphate and phosphorous tests to determine the levels in some of the leading brands of oetergents. The results are shown below. From our experiments we found that Sunlight contains the smallest amount of phosphorus and / or phosphate of all the detergents tested. We conclude that Sunlight would be the best detergent to use in the home if you want to do your part in trying to improve our water quality. This is consistent with the fact that Sunlight is a soap and does not contaiA the same nutrient phosphorus as detergents. DETERGENT GOOD SUNLIGHT BAD % PHOSPHATE Less than 1% Less than 1% ALCONOX 9.9 % 10.0 % TIDE 11 . 75 % IVORY LIQUID 13.2 % ALL 13.98 % 30.6 36.20 40.5 39.49 GALGONITE BOLD 21. 50 % 24.8 % 62.52 % 76.6 % ARCTIC POWER V % PHOSPHORUS 30.50 % % % % % THE EXPERIMENT volatile and combustible material has escaped and smoking subsides. Now heat vigorously for 5 minutes. 2. Allow to cool and transfer the contents to a 250 ml erlenmeyer flask, rinse the crucible with several 5 ml portions of concentrated hydrochloric acid, adding Purpose: To determine the phosphates in detergents. Method: 1. Place 1.00 ± .01 g of detergent into a crucible. Heat carefully over a low flame until most of the 31 �rinsings to the flask. 3. Carefully heat the flask almost to dryness (use a retort stand and asbestos mat to avoid splashing). 4. Cool. Add 50 ml distilled water, 10 ml concentrated HCl, cover with a watch glass, and boil gently for about 10 minutes. 5. Allow to cool and filter, washing the filter paper with several 10 ml aliquots of distilled water to bring the total volume to 200 ml in a 400 ..ml beaker. 6. Set up pH meter, allow meter to warm up for 10 minutes before standardizing. 7. With electrodes partially immersed in solution, add 50% sodium hydroxide to convert H3 P04 to H2 P0 4 until pH of above 4 is reached. Now add dilute sodium hydroxide until pH is exactly 4.3. 8. Record the burette reading and continue to add dilute NaOH until the pH= 8.8. Opencast Executive of the National Coal Board operates mainly along the northern outcrop from Kidwelly in the west to Blaenavon in the east and along the southern outcrop east of Port Talbot. Annual production is about two and a half million tons compared to a total of fourteen and a half million tons won by the National Coal Board 1 s East and West Wales Areas by conventional deep mining methods. The Opencast Executive has no compulsory powers to acquire land and it is required to operate subject to such conditions as are laid down by the planning authorities. These conditions invariably set out the type of restoration that is required after mining has finished and over a period of years the opencast coal industry has been at pains to show by the success of its restoration that it is not only economically right but can also contribute greatly to the improvement of the environment. The techniques of opencasting involve stripping topsoil and subsoil which are stacked in separate dumps for eventual replacement. The ideal is to restore one foot thickness of topsoil and two feet of subsoil over the area stripped. Topsoil found on sites in South Wales is invariably very much less than one foot thick, and quite often the subsoil is clay of very small particle size which is virtually useless for agriculture. So the practice is to set aside not only the available topsoil and subso 1 but as much soil-making material as is required for the proper restoration of the sites. This material usually consists sandy clay contained in the glacial drift that can sustain good plant life when fertilized and cultiva Recheck your titration value by adding concentrated hydrochloric acid and bring pH back to 4.3 and repeating the titration. Opencast Coal Mining Opencast coal mining began in the United Kingdom in 1942 when as much coal as possible had to be produced. It still goes on because it is a flexible and economical method. Opencast sites can quickly meet demands for a coal of a particular quality when traditional deep mining methods cannot. It also frequently offers a unique opportunity for the clearance of dereliction in coal mining areas and British manufacturers are provided withal ively home market for earth moving and other equipment that they sell abroad, too. The topsoil and subsoil are stripped off first and dumped to form sound baffles or screens near to houses. They are sown with grass and kept from weed growth so that they are not eyesores. In the South Wales Coalfield, the 32 �THE CTS PROJECT AND SOME EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS By T. R. Ide COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE - A NEW VENTURE and it is this feature that permits the use of the smaller and less expensive ground receivers and transmitters. Existing satellites, despite the relatively high cost of their receiving and transmitting stations, have proved valuable in linking points at great distances from each other. It is not practical or economic, however, to utilize them unless there are· highly sophisticated secondary forms of communications systems such as broadcast networks already in existence. Such restraints will not apply to nearly the same degree to the CTS. In August 1975 the Canadian Department of Communications, in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), plans to launch a Communications Technology Satellite (CTS). The concept of this joint program was first put forward in 1969, and an agreement was subsequently reached in which Canada undertook to design and build the spacecraft, with NASA providing the launch vehicle and some of the advanced components, such as the 200 Watt Travell inQ Wave Tube transmitter.1 This is the first such experimental project. Previous Canadian Satellites, Alouette and Anik, were operational rather than experimental, and reflected an interpretation of established technology, whereas CTS is a distinctly ~ew venture and is so designed that, 1f successful, it will mean a major step forward towards the improvement of the means of communication. The principal objective of the project is to demonstrate the viability of relatively low cost ground receiving and transmitting stations in the order of $2,000 - $15,000 compared with the present Anik's $150,000 - $200,000. To this end, the designers are utilizing frequencies in the 12 and 14 GHz 2 bands at power levels significantly greater than those provided by existing spacecraft. Prior to 1971, the only frequencies allocated for satellite communications were below 9 GHz which had to be shared with some fixed terrestrial services, and hence were subject both to frequency sharing constraints and power limitations by international agreement. In contrast, there is no power limit imposed on satellite transmissions on the new frequencies being used, ORBIT IS SYNCHRONOUS The Spacecraft, expected to have a life of two years, will be launched by NASA using a three stage vehicle (DELTA) and will be located in synchronous orbit at 114 degrees west longitude. A synchronous satellite rotates around the earth at the same speed as the earth and consequently appears to be in a stationary position over the earth. Once stationary with respect to the earth, the power will be derived from two batteries plus solar cells mounted both on the body of the satellite and on two extendable sails each 244 inches long and 51 inches wide. There are two antennas, each of which provides for the simultaneous transmission and reception of signals that may be aimed at any area in Canada or the United States (including Hawaii). The size of the signal contours (foot-prints), of course, varies with latitude and longtitude. However, in Canada, each foot-print is approximately 1000 miles long and 300 mi 1es wide. Despite the fact that the experimental time is limited, not only 33 �by the life of the satellite and the fact that it will be shared by both countries, but also by the numerous technical systems and sub-systems to be tested, an unusual opportunity exists for organizations interested in the educational and sociological implications of satellite communications to devise and propose experimental projects which might utilize effectively the unique capacity of the satellite to span distant and diverse communities, to access isolated communities, and to utilize the feedback capabilities of the system. In Canada, the federal Department of Communications convened a meeting in Winnipeg on October 18, l 972 , at wh i ch an , i nv i tat i on to s ub mit proposals was given 3 and some of the parameters to be considered we re out 1 i ned. The satellite itself will have the capability of transmitting from a main station simultaneously a combination of a colour TV signal, a sound broadcast signal, and up to ten channels of two-way voice to a variety of remote terminals. At the same time, it will be possible to transmit a colour TV signal from a remote transmission station to the main terminal. Ground terminals will consist of: (1) the existing 30 foot terminal at the Communications Research Centre in Ottawa capable of transmitting al 1· types of signals envisaged for the CTS satellite; (2) TV Remote Transportable Transmitters with ten-foot antennas and high power transmitters with a similar capacity as the Ottawa terminal; (3) mediumsized terminals with eight-foot antennas capable of receiving a TV signal with one audio channel and/or receiving and transmitting a telephone-quality voice channel and/or receiving sound broadcast signals, and (4) small-sized terminals with three-foot antennas capable of a two-way voice channel and sound broadcast receiver. Up to the present no decision has been made by the federal authorities as to the final number of ground stations they intend to supply. It is preiumed, however, that the number of such stations will be determined by the availability of funds and the quality of the proposals received. EXCHANGES OF PROGRAMS ESSENTIAL The Ontario Educational Communications Authority has been authorized by its Board to submit a communications experiment proposal to the Department of Communications. In essence, we see fou~ (possible configurations: ( l) 'Northno North; (2) North~ to S6uth;· (3) South to North, and (4) Southl o South. At the present time the proposal is in the draft stage, but it is hoped that Ontario might cooperate with other provincial jurisdictions, particularly in the north to north experiments, and with the Un,ited States in the south to south. It is the Authority's view that exchanges of programs between agencies with similar interests are essential if we are to devise techniques for surviving iQ a global village where electronic walls, even if desirable, are no longer possible. The Authority has also volunteered to act as'a clearing house for submissions from individual educational institutions. One such proposal has already been received from Lakehead University. It wi 11 be given every consideration by the OECA to see whether or not it might be an integral part of the general configurations described above, as well as being forwarded to the appropriate Department of Communications Project Officer. THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY It is our belief that the experiments should utilize the unique characteristics of the CTS 34 �that of software. Perhaps in this case the trend may be reversed. systems. For this reason, we have emphasized communications with isolated areas. Some of the issues described in detail in the OECA'S proposal include: the search for identity and its association with the problems of isolation; health care; education - both culturally maintaining and expanding; and the need for opportunities to participate in the decision making process. Some of the purposes of the experiment which are central are assumed to be: development of communications skills in native peoples; formation of guidelines relating to the nature of future communications policies in the North; measurement of the impact of modern communications on the Northern peoples; determination of the viability of satellite communications systems in remote areas; diagnostic assistance and health education; and an exploration of the extent to which an effective balance between the maintenance of a culture and the opening of the culture can be achieved in education programs. While the major emphasis has been placed on experiments which relate to the needs of the peoples in the Northern regions, some suggestions have been included which will test the economic viability of using the CTS system in the South. These include: an exchange of audio-visual programs between provincial ministries of education; a cooperative project with the State of New York to investigate programs designed to assist in the rehabilitation of the physically disabled, and links between post-secondary institutions in Ontario and California of a te1econference nature. In summary, the CTS satellite appears to offer educators and sociologists a unique opportunity to investigate the potential of a satellite communications system when the ground stations are of a moderate cost. In the past, it has seemed inevitable that the development of hardware always outstrips FOOTNOTES 1 Unique aspects of the satellite, in addition to the frequency and power of the transmitter, include the ion engine which uses the thrust of ions emitted to help maintain a more exact stationary position in orbit, and liquid metal slip rings which are used to transmit electrical signals between rotating parts of the satellite. 2A gigaherz (GHz) is unit of frequency measurement corresponding to one billion cycles per second. Thus the frequency of CTS is 12,500,000,000 cycles per second. By comparison, VHF television operates in the range 54 to 216 megaherz (MHz) [54,000,000 to 216,000,000]~ and UHF television in the range 470 to 890 MHz [470,000,000 to 890,000,000]~ A megahertz corresponds to one million cycles per second. 3Proposals in writing should be submitted to: Mr. J. Gilbert, Manager, Socio-Economic Project Officer, DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATIONS, 100 Metcalfe Street, Ottawa, Ontario. KlA OC8. ;'.Editor's gloss. T. R. Ide is the Chairman of The Ontario Educational Communications Authority, a Crown Corporation of the Province of Ontario, responsible for the development communications technology. Mr. spent twenty years in Thunder Bay as a teacher, principal and superintendent with the Port Arthur Board of Education. 35 �PRESENT AWARENESS By a Liberal Science Student Scientists are seeking other ways of producing power. Experiments in fusion (the H bomb effect) may be successful by the end of the century and might eventually provide us with tremendous amounts of energy. J.1his This winter, the citizens of the United States have been experiencing gas cuts, failing oil deliveries and electrical 11 brownouts 11 : they have experienced the energy crisis at first hand. Canadians are only vague1y aware of the problem, which concerns us because in simple terms, our neighbours want our fuel. Some of the more perceptive Canadian politicians and their constituents are beginning to wake up to the fact that perhaps we should take stock before we agree to let them have it. In a nuts he 11-: we shou 1d make sure that we have enough for our own needs before we sell any more. 1 is not by any means a sure thing. Solar energy (harnessing the sunlight) is a long-term possibility, but trapping and storing energy would involve the use of vast expanses of territory and is not at present a feasible project. Efforts by scientists to improve our exploitation of the sun as a source of power have, in the past, been aimed at increasing the sunlight-conversion efficiency of solar cells. Such cells, in the form of large panels attached to satellites, might one day allow their collected energy to be beamed down to earth by microwaves. 1 But the developmental problems of all such innovative techniques are of such a scale as to be almost beyond our grasp. SOURCES OF ENERGY Our present sources of energy are oil, gas and coal. There is nuclear energy - but how soon wi11 nuclear reactors take over the task of providing the electricity that is needed? There is much misunderstanding about reactors: they cannot take over from oil tomorrow, next year, or even next decade. Reactors take about ten years to design and build: they can take up only a fraction of total load, and development is retarded by environmentalists who are opposing them on the grounds of safety and thermal pollution. The new breeder reactors are more attractive than the present nuclear reactors but design problems are fierce, and they represent a greater potential hazard than the 11 conventional 11 CANDU type reactors designed and insta1led in Canada. In the United States many vociferous citizens' groups are vigorously oppo3ing the proposed proliferation of breeder reactors. Yet the energy from them is urgently needed. CANADIAN RESEARCH Another programme, instituted by Canadian scientists, would use the energy from vegetation waste. It is contended that if Canada would devote some of its research budget to prc,mote 11 Bio mass research" the economic payoff would be great. (A simple biomass energy source has always been used for energy - wood chips and sawdust!) 2 Many other types of research into energy production are being carried out. Wind power is unreliable but might be useful on a small scale in underdeveloped regions. However the time it takes between the birth of each novel idea and the final implementation is long, much longer than people usually realize. The ten years lead time for a nuclear reactor is a flash compared with the lead time for a fusion reactor of a large-scale generating station. It is 36 �going to take a century for some of today's ideas to bear fruit. The results of today's decisions on the selection of projects for scientific research may not show up ti 11 2000 or later. The Canadian Government is right I think to insist that scientists should expend more energy on applied research than they have hitherto. If we let other countries continue to do the applied research, we shall never improve our economy. for applied research, and no doubt the Americans are working on it already. The Government of Canada is promosing us a policy on energy within the next few months. I ts policy on scientific research is sti 11 in the forming stage.·!· Citizens who are aware of the situation do have opportunities from time to time to make their voices heard. We, in our Liberal Science courses, are given at least a general background of knowledge on which to base our judgements. Scientists are beginning to realize that their work can only go forward if they have the backing of the government. We, as informed laymen, must realize that our duty is to encourage scientists and policy makers to make a greater effort to communicate with each other in the solution of real social problems. The energy situation will come to the top of the pile within our lifetimes. There's a better than even chance that our children will shiver as a result of our mistakes. CAN WE HELP? Can we cut down on the amount of energy we shall need? We can take certain precautions. We can limit the size of our families; form car pools instead of travelling one person to a car; encourage the greater use of mass transportation; turn off unnecessary lights and go without air conditioning. But there is one form of energy without which we are lost. In Canada we have to heat our homes in ZJ.,inter. Milton Rubin, an American scientist working on energy-utilization of efficiency, believes that 11 in considering the complete energy-use system, the trend should be toward the development and manufacture of more efficient (and probably more sophisticated and expensive) equipment". He gives the startling example that saving 200 kWh per year per refrigerator could be achieved by re-designing the domestic refr i ge rat or . I n the U. S . A. th i s s i mp 1e exercise would eliminate the strip mining of four million tons of coal or the equivalent energy potential of many oil cargoes carried by supertankers. However, he does realize that there would not be a reduction in total energy consumption unless 11 the manufacture of this more efficient equipment is economical in the consumption of energy resources 11 • 3 Here is a task REFERENCES 111 Physics in 1972 11 , American Institute of Physics publication, p. 35. 2 Drew McGarton, Winnipeg, speaking on C.B.C. radio broadcast, February l, 1973. 3 Milton D. Rubin, Waste not, want not in I . E. E. E. Spectrum, Vo 1 . 10, No. l, January, 1973, p. 70. 11 11 t[Are you kidding? - ed.] ► Britain now has to deal with about 18 million tons of domestic refuse per year. It can be used as raw material for the process pyrolysis in which the refuse is turned into fuel gas and light and heavy oils. 37 �HARWELL ATOMIC ENERGY RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT By Huw Dorkins r•emar•kah le pub Zication haD come into our hands. It is entitled ENQUIRY 1972 - The Science Journal of Harrow County School for Boys. This magazine is fu Uy professional - it contains a wide range of articles contributed by the students_, and about an equal nwnber written by experts. !l The author is fourteen and very interested in science, being a founder member of the Junior Scientific Society. He was responsible for the initial organization of the visit to Harwell on which this article is based. Harwell, near Didcot, is the site of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE), and recently a group of students from school was taken on a guided tour of th i s es tab 1 i s hme n t. I t i s s i t ua t e d on a site of approximately two square miles next to the Science Research Council and the NIMROD accelerator. The site is divided into two sections. First, the main site which is a large area of laboratories, accelerators, administrative buildings and a housing estate for those working there. Second, a smaller area which contains the three more modern reactors and their associated buildings. It would have been impossible, due to the restricted time available, to show us the whole of the AERE so, since we were mainly interested in the reactor assemblies, it was these that we were shown. Before describing the particular reactors that we saw I should explain how reactors work. We are delighted_, with permission_, to reproduce an article on Harwell written by a young man of fourteen. The original was illustrated with a photograph of the LIDO reactor, which for technical reasons we are unable to reproduce. The article is atypical_, in the sense that it Is bas·ically an essay on a "school visit"_, whereas many of the other contributions are really miniature research papers_, shawing considerab le flair. What makes the enterprise so successful? We suspect that it was set up as a sound business organization_, with a Business Manager (who is our contact)_, and a professionally orientated sales and advertising staff. Certainly, the workers have managed to corral some pretty impressive advertisers from areas of British business circles not particularly noted for their philanthropy. REACTORS All reactors depend on a process called FISSION; this is when an atomic particle, called a neutron, collides with an atom of a fissile material, usually an isotope of uranium. This atom becomes unstable, eventually splitting into two smaller atoms and emitting two or three new neutrons and a considerable amount of energy. Each of the two or three new neutrons. may then collide with more atoms of fissile material, causing the entire process to be repeated two or three times over. If this continued unchecked, so much energy would be produced that an explosion would occur and indeed this is what happens in an atomic bomb. Therefore in reactors it is extremely We hope the students are making a profit. Whether or not they are doing so, they can be assured that they are gaining invaluable experience which they will find has a market value. Harrow County School for Boys must be an extraordinary institution incked. - Editor 38 �important to control the fission. This is done by using control rods made of a substance which will absorb excess neutrons. The fission will only take place if the speed of the neutron is within a certain range, when it is known as a thermal neutron. However ' the neutrons emitted from a splitting atom are moving too fast and so they must be slowed down. This is done by using a moderator, in which the neutrons collide with the atoms of the moderator and are thereby slowed down. Last, but not least, a coolant is necessary to cool the reactor core and stop it from overheating and, in the case of power station reactors, to transfer heat for use in the production of electricity. Normally the core of the reactor consists of a block of the moderator into which fuel rods containing the fissile material and control rods may be placed and through which the coolant may pass. It is necessary to protect the reactor operators from any harmful radiation from the core, so a large biological shield of concrete is needed to surround it. Basically, there are two main types of reactor in use. First, the large scale type used for power production (such as Calder Hall) and second a smaller type for research. It is the research reactor that is to be found at Harwell. These reactors are used to develop new techniques for use at the former type of reactor, to make radioisotopes for medical and industrial use, and to carry out research work involving the use of high power radiation such as may be obtained from the reactor core. The reactors at Harwell are LIDO, DIDO, GLEEP, BEPO (which is now shut down), PLUTO and DAPHNE and we were shown the first four of these and some of the techniques and instruments that have been developed there. ber of a class of reactors, known as swimming pool reactors, that have the core immersed in a large tank of water which acts as moderator and coolant. The whole reactor is enclosed in a concrete tank but because the reactor is under eight metres of demineral ized water it is safe to have the top open. This is very interesting because one can see a pcwerful blue glow, known as 11 Cerenkov 11 radiation, in the water surrounding the ~eactor. The reactor has been in operation for sixteen years and its maximum power output is lOOkW. DIDO REACTOR DIDO, so named because the moderator used is heavy water or DDO, is much more powerful than LIDO. The reactor is of the conventional type, but all those who work on the reactor, and visitors, must put on special overshoes and pass through an air lock on entering the reactor. They are monitored by ~eans of a large scale Geiger counter on leaving. As I have mentioned, DIDO is comparatively powerful and has a normal power output of about 15 MW. As well as being the moderator the heavy water acts as the coolant dissipating this power. DIDO and its sister reactor, PLUTO, are both constructed in buildings where the pressure inside is lower than atmospheric. This is so that if a leak occurred, the movement of the air would be from the outside inwards and as a result no radioactive particles would be spread, thus avoiding external contamination. It is a member of the group known as 11 Materials testing reactors 1 ' and its purpose is to test various materials to study their structure and the effect of radiation on them. It also produces radioisotopes. GLEEP REACTOR GLEEP stands for 1tG raph i te Low Energy Experimental Pile" and is located on the main site. It was commissioned by the Atomic Energy Authority in 1947 making it the o 1des t pi 1e in Eu rope. It is used LIDO REACTOR This was the first reactor we visited and is called LIDO because it is a mem39 �dieted the possibility of this sale in a speech last February. Mr. Macdonald noted that although selling uranium at this time was a difficult assignment, Canada had succeeded in making a sales agreement with Spanish utility companies. The sale to Spain comes at a time when world uranium supply exceeds market demand. The order will be filled from the joint CanadaDenison stockpile and the general government uranium stockpile. Deliveries will take place over the period 1974 to 1977. The sale will provide a market for all of the uranium stockpiled under the Canada-Denison agreement of 1971. Tnder this agreement, the Government of Canada, through its crown corporation, Uranium Canada Limited (UCAN), agreed to acquire more than six million pounds of uranium oxide from Denison between 1971 and 1974 in order to stabilize employment and production at Denison's Elliot Lake mine in Northern Ontario until long-term contracts come into effect. The government's share of revenue from the sale to Spain will recover the $29.5 million of public funds spent in accumulating the stockpile. The stockpile is controlled jointly by Denison and UCAN, with Denison acting as sales agent. As only a portion of the general stockpile will be used to fill the order, UCAN will continue to oversee the disposition of this governmentcontrolled stockpile. In accordance with Canada's national policy on the sale of uranium, the uranium sold to Spain will be used for peaceful purposes only. This will be assured by the application of International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards. for measuring a property known as the Neutron cross-section 11 of various substances. Its maximum power level at present is 3 kW. GLEEP is an aircooled reactor with its core in a block of the moderator, graphite which is inside a cube of concrete with sides of six and one half metres. 11 BEPO REACTOR Although not as olci as GLEEP, BEPO was shut down in 1968 when most of the work beiPg done on it had been transferred to DIDO or PLUTO. As a result the fuel rods were removed and the channels for fuel and control rods and experimental rigs were filled with concrete. The reactcr cannot be completely dismantled because of the radioactivity of its graphite core which still remains. CONCLUSION We all enjoyed ourselves greatly, and the visit proved to be very interesting and valuable, giving us an insight into the operation.of the AERE and some of the problems that still remaineG to be solved in this field of research. I wou 1d 1 i ke to thank a 11 those at Harwell who contributed to the success of the visit and who helped me in writing this article. Uranium Sale To Spain OTTAWA:- Canada and Spain have signed a sales agreement for nearly $60 million, involving some nine million pounds of Canadian uranium oxide, to be used by Spanish electric utility companies for the generation of electric power, the President of Uranium Canada Limited, Jack Austin, announced. Mr. Austin is also Deputy Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources, and he signed the agreement in Madrid on behalf of the Government of Canada. The Hon. Donald S. Macdonald, Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources, pre40 �THE EFFECTIVE SHAPE OF A MOLECULE By E. Tyrrall In the treatment of the Kinetic Theory of Gases, molecules are assumed to be spherical in shape. This assumption usually troubles students of chemistry more than it troubles students of physics because, in their studies, the former acquire a detailed knowledge of molecular structure and molecular shape. Thus, in the introductory course in chemistry, the student soon learns to write the structure of the hydrogen chloride molecule as H-Cl and that of the carbon dioxide molecule as O=C=O. As he learns more of the electronic structure of molecules, it becomes clear that these molecules have the following approximate shapes: HCl this is not so in the case of either rotational energy or vibrational energy. Both these are quantised. We are only interested in rotational energy. Because rotational energy is quantised there is for each substance a temperature - characteristic of that substance below which the rotational degrees of freedom will be frozen, i.e. below which the molecules will not rotate. This temperature lies below room temperature for all substances so that the molecules of all polyatomic gases rotate freely at room temperature. In the case of hydrogen chloride the temperature at which molecular rotation becomes important is well below room temperature - it is, in fact, below 100° K. Now in this temperature region crystalline hydrogen chloride undergoes a transition, the higher temperature form having a cubic close-packed structure. This transition (at 98°K) is believed to be due to the assumption, by the hydrogen chloride molecule, of an effective spherical shape consequent upon the onset of molecular rotation. Thus, although the actual shapes of molecules vary, their effective shapes in the gas phase will be spherical provided that the temperature exceeds the characteristic temperature for molecular rotation. 0 c=J Scale models of these molecules can, in fact, be made using, amongst others, the Fischer-Stuart Models. Neither of these molecules is, then, spherical. It should, however, be remembered that in addition to translational motion, there are two other types of motion open to a molecule: rotary motion and vibratory motion. Thus th~ molecule of hydrogen chloride can rotate about its centre of gravity and, in so doing, demarcate a spherical region in space. In other words, although the actual shape of a molecule may be non-spherical, its effective shape will, by virtue of its rotational motion, be spherical. That this is so is confirmed in an interesting manner by studying the crystal structure of solid hydrogen chloride. However, before the results of this study can be properly appreciated, it is necessary to remember that, although the translational kinetic energy of a molecule can vary continuously, Mr. Ernest Tyrrall is Head of the Chemistry Division, Northern Ireland Polytechnic. A graduate of the University of Manchester, he carried out research in thermodynamics of high polymer systems with the late M. G. Evans. Before moving to Northern Ireland, he was a research chemist with Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd. He is a devoted swimmer and an established raconteur. 41 �PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY - ARE THEY SEPARABLE? By Margaret Hawton BIOLOGY BECOMES QUANTITATIVE excited. The transmission of the signal is much like the trans~ission of a signal in an electrical cable. All means of locomotion (walking, running, skiing, flying) are examples of the laws of mechanics. The size 1 imitations on animals with internal skeletons, the way the muscles work and the circulation of the blood are all just simple physical principles in action. There is a growing trend today to making biology quantitative. This doesn't just mean weighing and counting things. Our basic understanding of biological processes depends on a knowledge of physical science. A few examples wi 11 illustrate the point. The numbers of predators and their prey oscillate much like the position of a mass on a spring. Since the number of predators and their food supply (prey) are interrelated, the oscillations are 11 coupled 11 • Thus the predatorprey relationship is similar to the coupled harmonic oscillator of classical mechanics. Much of the elegant theory that has been developed over the last few hundred years for oscillators can be carried over to their biological counterparts. An electrical potential exists across the membrane of a cell. An analogy can be ~ade between the membrane and the electric circuit shown below. If the cell can transmit an THE SCIENCES ARE INDIVISIBLE If you think that you can understand biology (or even physical education) properly without first coming to grips with the laws of physics, you are mistaken. The sciences cannot be separated into neat little packages called biologyy chemistry, geology and physics. They are all part of a whole, and the boundaries that separate them are becowing increasingly unclear! Mrs. Hawton was born and educated in New Brunswick and has been teaching at Lakehead University since 1966. Last year she spent her sabbatical in the Biology Department at Carleton University~ Ottawa. OUTSIDE RESISTANCE CAPACITOR MICROORGANISMS IN PULP MILL EFFLUENTS - BATTERY B.C. Research is completing the initial $50,000 phase of a continuing contract for investigating the significance of microorganisms present in pulp and paper mill process streams and effluents. The Committee on Pollution Abatement Research of the Federal Government and the pulp and paper industry of Canada are financing this investigation. The results indicate limited growth in waste streams, but significant growth associated with raw materials and the effluents resulting from their initial processing. INSIDE OF NERVE impulse (e.g., a nerve cell), it is said to be 11 excitable 11 • There are many theories of the nature of the excitation, but a 11 i nvo 1ve phys i ca 1 princip1es. One recent suggestion is that the membrane contains two layers of dipoles (a dipole is a positive and negative charge of the same magnitude, separated by some distance) that flip over when the nerve is 42 �FUTURE CAREERS By Moc Ktytor 11 CAREERS 11 ARE OBSOLETE? Students who are considering going to university should, but seldom do, ask themselves "Why am I going?" It is absolutely astounding to discover how many students reply by saying 11 1 don 1 t know 11 • A student who makes this reply should perhaps delay attending university until he can identify a purpose. As in anything else, a lack of motive, understanding and enthusiasm can only result in a very poor job. The idea of ''career' may be obso 1e te. Dynamic changes in career patterns, the increasing rate at which vocational and professional skills become obsolete, new problems created by the accelerating process of urbanization and major shifts in social value suggest that more than a single career will soon be the order of the day for most workers. Already jobs are becoming obsolete at the rate of two and a half per cent per year. In twenty years, according to a Wheaton College sociologist, Zonda Linblade, sixty per cent of all jobs today will no longer exist. The familiar question put forward by teachers and parents, 11 What are you going to be?", will have to be re-phrased: 11 What wi11 be your first vocation?" No one can accurately predict which jobs will be part of the forty per cent still in existence twenty years from now, so flexibility seems a sensible attitude to develop. Ten years ago, an employer might have looked askance at a job application by someone who had occupied four different positions in ten years; nowadays, the same employer might prefer the application of such a person over another who had not moved at all, because the 11 mover 11 has proved that he is flexible and adaptable. There is a crisis of confidence in social and educational institutions. We often hear that there are no jobs for university graduates, or that the number of jobs is decreasing. Let us look at it another way. What does the new university graduate have to offer? Furthermore, does the university exist to train people for jobs? 1 GRADUATES FLOUNDER ABOUT What is even more astounding is that when many young men and women finally graduate from university they are still in a complete fog, and are very quick to criticize everyone and anyone about not being able to find a job. My question is - 11 What do you have to offer? 11 This is the most important question for all graduates. A university gives every member the opportunity of becoming a "quality person". What I mean is that one is encouraged toward achieving a high standard of intellectual excellence, how to think and understand, how to express ideas with clarity, how to develop solutions to the increasingly complex problems which we all must cope with. Most importantly, a student should develop an awareness of reality of self and others. As far as specific training for a job is concerned, it is unlikely that a university will offer much. However, there is the opportunity to develop a unique human skill that is imperative to be successful in any career; that is the ability to grasp quickly, understand and communicate. The 43 �university, in a phrase, trains to get trained! If one could achieve only part of the above out of a university education, and then ask oneself the question, 11 What do you have to offer? 11 , there is 1 ittle doubt that the answer would be considerably more positive than the usual 11 I don I t know 11 • for which a local, regional or national shortage exists and is expected to continue. A special employer reimbursement formula is part of the new program whereby employers will receive, from the federal government, fifty per cent of the trainee's wages during the first half of the training period and twenty-five per cent during the second half. All employers not financed primarily by tax revenues, including non-profit private agencies, are eligible for participation in the new program. It is also open to public employers, either government owned or controlled, who are financed mainly by public fees or sales, i.e. public transportation companies, provincial hydro or telephone companies, and hospitals which are not wholly owned, staffed and funded by provincial governments. The average amount of training time in which the federal government will participate financially with employers is expected to be about five months. Maximum reimbursement will be $118 per week per trainee. Training periods may range in duration from six to fifty-two weeks and will be carefully determined in relation to the complexity and number of skills to be taught, prior experience or training of the trainees, and expected productivity of trainees at various stages of training. Trainees will be screened as to their suitability for training in a particular occupation by Canada Manpower Centre officers. They will be referred to the employer for final selection. To qualify for training, trainees must be 11 adults 11 , that is, one year beyond the school leaving age of the province where they reside. They must also have been unemployed or on layoff for one week. ■ Anew manpower training initiative specially designed to alleviate regional and national shortages of skilled workers and provide additional job opportunities for unemployed workers was announced by the Hon. Robert Andras, Minister of Manpower and Immigration. As a continuing element of the federal Manpower Industrial Training Program, Training on the Job for Skill Shortages is now offered to employers to encourage the hiring and training of workers for hard-to-fill occupations. As indicated by the Statistics Canada Job Vacancy Survey and by the number of unfilled job vacancies at Canada Manpower Centres across the country, employers are having difficulty finding fully qualified workers to fill available jobs. The new program wi 11 greatly improve Canada 1 s effectiveness in matching labour demand and supply across Canada, Mr. Andras stated. He added that, 11 Many of our workers will now have the opportunity for training and employment in occupations for which they would not otherwise qualify and employers will not have to lose production and profits caused by skill bottlenecks. In conjunction with the provinces, the Department of Manpower and Immigration will assist employers in developing training projects that will give new workers skills to perform jobs 11 11 11 44 �Moe Ktytor Margaret Hawton "flexibility seems a sensible attitude to develop" "The sciences cannot be separated into neat little packages" Mrs Black and offspring in the Institute. "Travel can be a broadening experience to be shared with students" �HIGH SCHOOL .. DROP OUTS ! 11 By Maurice G. Black A SABBATICAL IN MEXICO A sabbatica1 leave from teaching for one year! What an opportunity to travel with no dead1 ines to meet! After a combined total of twenty nine years of teaching experience, both my wife Jackie and I were ready for a change of pace. We ended up in a school of art in Mexico, taking courses for six days a week and pounding out my thesis for the degree of Master of Fine Arts. Having spent the first five months of the sabbatical trailering through thirty three states of the eastern U.S.A., we were ready to rest our wheels for a time. While our ten year old son Earl completed his grade five at the Escuela Bilingue in San Miguel de Allende, Jackie and I enrolled in the Art school for two semesters. Institute Allende is an internationally known and recognized art school incorporated with the University of Guanajuato, Mexico. The colonial beauty of the town, the availability of tntriguing subject matter and the ideal climate with perpetual sunshine provided a conducive atmosphere for a concentrated study of the arts. Gallery openings once a week by artists of varying talent; excellent live entertainment at the local theatre; weekly swims at the ~earby hot pools; daily visits with fellow trailerites; watching various native fiestas -we squeezed in all these besides keeping up our numerous school projects. guide books and travellers we met along the way. Exaggerated tales led us almost to believe that Mexico was a vast area of desert and mountains populated by thieves and beggars. The water was unfit to drink; the food was guaranteed to make you ill. During our eight month stay in Mexico we discovered how false and distorted these accounts were. We found Mexico to be a land of surprises geographically, populated by people who were friendly and helpful. An abundance of fresh fruit, vegetables and meat enabled us often to eat better quality for much less money than we spend on food in Thunder Bay. We found on many occasions during our travels, that third-hand information is certainly no substitute for first hand experience. TWO WAY COMMUNICATION The three month crash course in Spanish that we pursued at the Institute in San Miguel, Mexico, helped us immensely to communicate with Mexican people we met on our travels. Mexican families pursuing various craft skills described their work in Spanish and were quite interested in finding out more about Canada - the 'land of ice and snow'! Everywhere we stopped to ask directions, to obtain supplies, to bargain for craft work or simply to talk to the people, we were treated with gracious courtesy. In every case the Mexican people were most willing to help us extend our limited Spanish vocabulary and to correct us in the pronunciation of difficult words. Once a bond of understanding had been established, that I was a teacher photographing Mexican life to show Canadian ildren, most Mexicans became willing subjects for the camera. Written and oral accounts regarding the so-called dishonesty, filth and SEEING FOR OURSELVES During the nine month period that we spent in Mexico, we drove more than eight thousand miles of highway and dirt roads. My family and I had spent months doing spare time research on Mexico and its people before we crossed its borders in early December. We had read and listened to many disturbing, but often conflicting reports from 46 �We explored the archeologica1 ruins of Mitla and Monte Alban and toured the museums in Mexico Ci Tuxtla Gutierrez and Oaxaca to learn more of this amazing Aztec civilization. The floating gardens of Xochimilco ... the Mexican Foklorico ballet ... the coppersmiths of Santa Maria del Cobre ... famous Oaxaca pottery ... historic Vera Cruz ... colourful fiestas . : . bul 1fights ... each one provided a unique and not-to-be-forgotten experience for us. laziness of the Mexican people peP sc readily arouse our indignation and desire to disprove such unwarranted prejudice. HIGHLIGHTS To select highlights from this nine month adventure is difficult. My son's choice was the expedition to the volcano of Paracutin which developed in a cornfield and erupted in 1943. After reaching the departure point, a rather remote village at the end of a rough dirt road, we hired a guide and horses for the ninety minute ride to the lava beds. Nature's phenomena were awesome, since molten lava had flowed through a village leaving portions of a church and remnants of homes standing but embedded. My wife was enamoured with the sea coast of the Pacific. Life evolved in a leisurely fashion for the natives who spread large nets once every two days to obtain enough fish for their needs. Coffee beans, shrimp, and an abundance of vegetables and tropical fruit were available at low cost. Here was an ideal site in which to park our trailer where we could read, relax and think undisturbed, with miles of uninhabited sunny beaches on which to wander. The costumed Indians frequenting the town of San Cristobal intrigued me. This mountain town located only sixty miles or so from the Guatemalan border is sufficiently remote to be yet unaffected by tourism. Our strange fashion of dress and white skin attracted considerable attention since these natives continue to wear tribal costumes that have not changed in design for many centuries. After first allowing some of the shy yet fascinated young men to view their friends through my camera view finder, I was permitted the opportunity of photographing them. IT 1 S HARD TO RE-ADAPT Since arriving home, we have been caught up in the bustling 11 rat race 11 which we left over one year ago. Oddly enough it is the cultural shock of a return to civilization to which we had difficulty adapting! Our future holiday plans include return trips to Mexico, especially the Yucatan peninsula which could not be included on our sabbatical itinerary. We feel that travel can be a broadening experience to be shared with students and as such deserves valid consideration by those contemplating sabbatical leave. The opportunity to observe other educational systems in operation and to exchange views with teachers in areas removed from ours makes the granting of sabbatical leaves valuable in that it enriches those who have the opportunity to communicate their heightened experiences to the next generation. Finally, the sense of achievement gained through furthering one 1 s education is in itself a most rewarding experience. Maurice graduated from Lakehead University in 1965. Jacqueline graduated from Lakehead University in 1969. Ed. - People like the Blacks are Canada 1 s most effective ambassadors. 47 �SO YOU WANT TO BE A NURSE? By Made 1 in e Hook i ngs A KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE IS NECESSARY ber of the heart, the atrium, is a small group of cells somewhat different from the other cells forming ~he heart tissues. This microscopic island of cells possesses an innate ability to send out electrical impulses that stimulate the heart muscle to contract. Although scientists are yet to unravel how this group of cells, called a node, actually accomplishes this unusual and interesting phenomenon, there is ample scientific data establishing that it is the 11 pace-setter 11 or 11 pace-maker 11 of cardiac rhythm. It sets the rate at which each individual's heart will beat throughout his entire life. When it ceases to emit these electrical charges, the life of the organism ends. Why, we might ask, is science necessary in learning to care for the sick? Because the central concern of nursing is to serve Man, then many of his attributes must be understood if this service is to be skillfully performed. To gain knowledge of this really unique being, a nurse will need to know about both his physical and emotional nature. THE HUMAN PUMP One of the most efficient and enduring pumps ever conceived is the heart. This pump beats approximately seventy times per minute as long as a person 1 ives. Believe it or not, by eighty years of age, the heart will have contracted over a tr i 11 ion t i mes . I t is very doubt ful whether any man-made apparatus could possess such lasting properties. The heart, besides its marvellous ability to function continuously, has a number of other interesting and unique qualities. Each time this pump works, it jettisons out into the blood vessels from each of its two chambers about seventy to one-hundred and forty milliliters of blood. In the athlete this amount can rise as high as ' two-hundred milliliters from each chamber. This is a large output indeed, when one considers that the human heart is roughly the size of a man's fist. THE EFFECT OF THE EMOTIONS As a censor of the individual 1 s environment, the nervous system can alter the established rhythm of heart beat. This added control is a most salient factor in preparing the body for an emergency occurrence, such as some external danger or an illness. Also, the deepest emotions are voiced in the language of the heart, and while happiness is 11 hea rt·fe l t sorrow is heartbreak With 11 11 success, one is heartened and with disappointment, 11 heartsick 11 • The heart is the tissue of life, governed by its own innate rhythm, nervous mechanisms and other physiological factors. 11 11 , 11 • THE RED RI VER THE RHYTHM OF LIFE Like any other pump, the heart must have fluid to perform normally. In the human body, a very remarkable fluid serves this purpose - The Red River - blood. Should this fluid volume be decreased by about twothirds of its normal complement, the heart would no longer pump. This principle also holds when the fluid volume, over a period of time, exceeds At about the tenth day of embryonic growth, a very minute package of bright red tissue begins to pulsate. This tissue represents what will in time become a four-chambered heart. How did this small bit of tissue begin to pulsate? Located in what will become the upper right cham48 �its normal amount. Blood is a red, viscid, salty fluid that constantly bathes every cell of an organism. Should an artery become blocked, even for a few minutes, the cells supplied by this vessel would commence to degenerate or break down. For example, if the flow of this river to the brain were to be stopped for four minutes, many of these all important cells would die. One unique quality of blood is its special ability to transport food and oxygen to all parts of the body; it is also the body's housekeeper. The body cells are extremely active miniature chemical factories, and where there are factories there is usually waste. In this case organic acids, carbon dioxide and heat are some of the waste products. The Blood is the River of Life. Death is only minutes away should it cease to flow. many of us indulge in food high in animal fats. Once an overabundance of these fats enters the circulatory system, they can, over a period of years, cause untold damage to arteries of the organism. Of special significance is· the damage to the vital arteries that carry food and oxygen to the heart itself. What are these changes that occur? Fats, in excessive amounts, invade the walls of arteries and this over a period of years leads to a narrowing of lumens (or tubes). This finally results in occlusion or blocking of the vessels, especially those that supply the heart muscle. With complete occlusion, the individual has what is commonly called 11 a heart attack 11 • IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING The foregoing discussion has indicated some of the scientific knowledge from which nursing concepts can be drawn. When a patient has an enlarged heart, the manner of positioning, to ensure the greatest expansion of the thorax, is accomplished through the application of the nurse's knowledge of science. When patients move in bed, they are inclined to hold their breath. In heart disease, this can be dangerous, even fatal. As an individual holds his breath, pressure builds up in the thorax inhibiting blood from flowing into the heart. When he breathes again, changing the pressure, a great rush of blood enters the heart, causing stretching that can, in turn, cause cardiac arrest. This is perhaps one reason why persons with heart disease can die suddenly. The nurse can, because of her acquired knowledge, assist patients to understand the danger of holding their breath when performing various activities. As a nurse, one must look scientifically at all the components that represent Man, and gain a relatively comprehensive understanding of the river - our blood - its STRESS - THE VILLIAN Statistics reveal that about half the yearly deaths are attributable to heart disease. Medical literature lists many reasons for heart disease, but certainly an overall cause, in the opinion of the famous Montreal scientist, Hans Selye, is stress. Temporarily, stress marshals the body to ward off impending danger. It prepares the body to fight, for it is a survival mechanism of life. However, this defense mechanism can harm the heart, blood vessels or other body organs. When an individual 1 s body is continuously subjected - for long periods to a stress state, irreversible harm results. Nurses observe the results of stress every day, as they work with patients with stomach ulcers, high blood pressure, heart disease and other bodily ills. ARE FATS CULPABLE? On the North American continent 49 �point, or 27 distinct such lines passing through the cube. Consider one of these lines. The two planes containing this line and perpendicular to the faces divide the cube into four quadrants. Choose one of these quadrants and call it Each 2 x2 xl brick that intersects A will intersect it in 1 2, or 4 unit cubes. Those that meet' A in 1 unit cube are precisely those bricks pierced by the line. Since A contains an even number of unit cubes, there must be an even number of bricks that meet A in 1 cube. Thus, there are an even number of blocks that are pierced by the line. It requires then 54 bricks if each line is to pierce at least one (and hence 2) bricks. However, a 4 11 x4 11 x4 11 cube contains only 16 bricks. Therefore, there is at least one (in fact 14) lines that don t pierce any of the bricks. The rod should be passed along one of these lines. Consider an nxnxn cube to be constructed as described above. Can you show, using an argument as above, that if n 3/4 < 2.J(n-1) 2 , there is at least one way to pass a rod through the cube without piercing any bricks? What is the largest value of n for which the argument works? sources, i ls channe 1s and its aclua I composition. One must acquire a detailed knowledge of the engine that makes blood flow through these channels - the heart. One must know what the implications are when this pump breaks down or wears out, what parts can be replaced. With this kind of scientific background the nurse then has the facts in her possession with which to truly serve that unique organism we call Man. Ms. M. Bookings is presently on the faculty of the Lakehead University School of Nursing teaching MedicalSurgical Nursing. She hails from the Eastern Provinces where she received her basic education. Following her post-graduate work at McGill University in Montreal she has taught in various schools of nursing in and around the Toronto area. She brings to her present appointment a depth of experience and knowledge. by J. H. M. Whitfield A contractor wishes to build a 411 x4 11 x4 11 solid cubical pillar out of 2 x2 x1 bricks. The faces of the bricks are parallel to the faces of the cube, but they need not all lie flat. Also he wishes to have a thin rod pass through the pillar without passing through any of the bricks. Can he do it? Sure! Divide the cube into unit cubes. This gives a 4'~4 grid on each face. If a rod passes through the cube in the manner described, it will intersect the face at a grid point. There are 9 lines perpendicular to each face, each intersecting it at a grid 11 11 11 1 A BRICK PROBLEM 11 11 A. 11 PUZZLE ??? THERE ARE 3 CANNIBALS AND 3 MISSIONARIES. THEY HAVE TO GET ACROSS A RIVER INFESTED WITH CROCODILES. THE BOAT HOLDS ONLY TWO PEOPLE. IF AT ANY TIME THE MISSIONARIES ARE OUTNUMBERED, THEY WILL BE EATEN. GET EVERYONE ACROSS THE RIVER. 11 (swimming is out!) - - 50 John MCLaren �INTERVIEW WITH THE LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY STOREKEEPER= Bert Harding IS TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE MORE IMPORTANT THAN SYSTEM MANAGEMENT? Us: analy0 ts and that; k /nd <ij' thing - but I must add Uwl my own view of accounling at the Departmental level is that any intelligent person can do it. Did you read the first Caret? Bert: No, not all of it. I suppose I have read about half of the articles. Us: Bert: Yes, as far as the Department is concerned, there is no need to get too deeply involved in the accounting procedures. In fact, you want it as simple as possible. What the Department needs to know is how much money we have, how much we have committed to date and roughly where it has gone. Well~ did you read the interview with Ken Sumpter? What we ~re tryin~ to do is to produce ui every 1,ssue an interview with somebody like yourself so that the students in high school who read it have some idea of what kind of jobs we do around the University. We also want to bring out the personalities and interests of the people who work in the Faculty of Science. I honestly don't know what your job is: I just see you there surrounded by glassware and chemicals. Can you tell our read~rs what your job really cons1,sts of? Us: Bert: Yes. I send in the records to the Chairman regularly, as a report, which tells him more or less where we stand. Us: Bert: Yes. Well, essentially, I am storekeeper for the Chemistry Department. Us: How did you get into the job? Bert: A~ w 11 as passing my techni7 diploma course, I also cians had some storekeeping experience; but I would say that on the whole my skills are in chemical technology rather than in business. I use my technical knowledge in what we might call stores systems - that is, understanding the specifications and properties of chemicals and equipment for the benefit of the other technicians and the professors. For example, they expect me to know whether a particular piece of equipment will do the job they want it to do. Us: So you just keep a list of the running expenses? Do you find that more pressures ~om~ on you when the University 1,s 1,n a state of budgetary crisis? Who decides what is necessary spending and what is just frills and can perhaps be delayed for a while - do you? Bert: I decide, or at least make recommendations, as to what we need and what I think our priorities are; the final decision is, of course, that of the Chairman, Dr. I. M. Hoodless. Us: Yes~ well he carries the final responsibi U ty. Bert: Other input also comes from the faculty members who are in charge of the various courses, and they are often faced with the problem of what is really necessary to run their own courses, and how they relate to all other courses. Us: Where did you get your training? Bert: The Western Ontario Institute of Technology in Windsor. Well~ I have learnt something already. I would have thought that you would have had to have all kinds of business courses such as accounting~ systems Us: 51 I think we ought to get across to our readers the fact there were Institutes of Technology �available, then we send out tenders ... othm:) than Nyerson long bcj'or)e the present community colleges were formed. Us: Bert: Yes, there were four others including the Institute at Windsor which has always been one of the best Institutes in Canada. I was there for three years ... Us: Did you go there before it became a community college? Us: Bert: Yes. Us: Most people think that Ryerson was the only Institute that predated the colleges. Bert: Ryerson is extremely well known, perhaps because of its size. But Windsor has always been competitive and graduates from Windsor always have the offer of several jobs each. Windsor produced its first graduating class in 1961, so it preceded the colleges by about five years, at least. Us: What are your main problems in storekeeping - apart from finding forty-five gallon drums for the Editor of Caret? Alright~ let's call it a situation ... Bert: ... is to obtain the maximum amount of equipment for the minimum amount of capital, sometimes in a very critical situation. Us: This is no criticism of Purchasing~ but do you find that you really know more about the teehnical specifications than they do and in fact it is more efficient . . . quicker and mor•e accurate for you to send out the tenders yourself? You save on one step in the chain. Bert: Right. They are very helpful. In fact, sometimes Purchasing will have a problem connected with another Department and they will phone me for information on a specification and how a company's product stands up to both its specification and to the wear and tear of use in the laboratory. Manufacturers' claims and performance do not always match! Some other departments are not so technically orientated as those in the Faculty of Science. Bert: I suppose the main problem, although I don't consider it a problem, more of a challenge ... Us: Do you do that or ... ? Bert: No, I do it most of the time. Occasionally, I will use the assistance of the Purchasing Department, which is excellent, but generally they are very busy. WASTE NOT, WANT NOT Us: How do you do that? Do you talk to salesmen or do you go out on tender? Bert: I talk quite a lot with salesmen in person or on the telephone. Perhaps I interview them rather than the other way round! I get ideas of what I want and then discuss with various companies how their particular equipment operates to see if it comes up to my ideas of what it ought to do for the Department and whether the claims are exaggerated. When I know exactly what is available, we write specifications which are based on a compromise between what we would like and what is When I was in schooZ 3 more years ago than I care to remember 3 all I can remember about chemistry labs is that there was a great tendency to use too much. 11 Don I t use a gram when a kilogram will dd 1 seemed to be the motto. Do you have any problem in that way? Bert: Yes, especially at the first year level. When there are a hundred or two hundred students doing the same laboratory, the technicians have a terrible problem in guessing how much of the reagents they need to prepare. In some laboratories where the students are particularly sloppy, we may have to 52 �prepare two or three times as much of a solution as is really necessary, and often they will run short in the middle of a lab period which causes a great panic - but the students have only themselves to blame. Unfortunately the innocent suffer with the guilty. Us: Bert: The solution is reasonably simple. ·As a means of relaxation. When I leave the door of the University, I enter a different sphere, and relax from the problems that I may have encountered at work. Similarly when I come to the University to work, I leave my home and hobby problems behind! This system affords greater use of my mental capacities and replaces mental tension with preoccupation. Have you ever suggested to the professors that they fine the students if they use too much? Bert: No, we have never taken that approach. By the second year, the students are more lab orientated and we have less trouble. Us: Us: Bert: I've never been in camp at thirty below, but I have done a great deal of outdoors work including winter camping in Northwestern Ontario. Do you have to separate the requirements of teaching and research? Bert: Yes, but much of the research equipment is ordered by individual professors out of their research grants. Us: Do you go camping out in the bush at thirty below? Us: What sort of ages are the boys? Bert: Well, we run programmes here for boys from ages eight to twenty-three. Do you have any problems keeping track of research equipment? Finding out who's got it ... whether undergraduate equipment has wandered into some professor's research lab~ for instance? Us: Is the scout movement growing or decrieasing? Bert: At the present time, unfortunately, membership is decreasing. Bert: There are some small problems, but the real problem seems to be more the mental attitude of the individual. Us: What is the problem? Bert: There are a number of factors. Us: Does the increase in social self-discipline play a pa1 t? 1 SCOUTING Bert: Yes, this is one of the bigger social problems. Us: Us: To complete the profile~ what do you do in your spare time? I know what you do in your spare time ... could you tell the readers? Bert: Very, very slight. We obviously have to have some degree of discipline, but we are far from being a military force or having a militaristic philosophy. Bert: Well, I like to be busy, active all day. Perhaps I am more physically active in the evenings. As well as indulging my interest in radio and electronics, I spend a great deal of time with the Boy Scouts' Association. Us: Us: Is there anything I have NOT asked you that you would like to tell our readers? A SOURCE OF EQUIPMENT AND TECHNICAL HELP What's your position in the organization? Bert: At the present time, I am on the Executive Committee of the District Council . Us: Is there any military content in scouting? Bert: Well ... getting back to the store, it might be interesting to note that my store on the second floor of the Science How do you find enough time to do that? 53 �Building has the largest stock of scientific materials and equipment in Northwestern Ontario. Not only do we lend equipment out to other Departments in the University, we also lend to various high schools and in particular to students at the high school level who are working on projects for the Science Fair. Such projects involve using apparatus and chemicals which are not available in the high schools. It gives me great pleasure, both personally and on behalf of the University, that we can provide this service to assist the students to develop their knowledge and skills. Us: New Brunswick and so is Utopia, Sugarloaf Mountain, both Upper and Lower California and even Loch Lomond. These are some of the fourteenthousand names of populated areas and natural features 1 isted in a new edition of the Gazetteer of Canada for New Brunswick, published for the Canadian Permanent Committee on Geographical Names by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. The last edition, issued in 1956, contained only seven-thousand names. The bilingual gazetteer includes a glossary of terms, a map of New Brunswick showing counties and parishes, the exact geographical position of each place and a map with instructions on how to obtain maps of regions within the province on a scale of 1 :50,000. Other exotic place names found in the province are: Push and be Damned Rapids, Pull and Be Damned Island, Sl ingdung Brook, Spit Shoal, Skull Island, Hells Kitchen (a ravine), Left Hand Leg (a bay), and The Old Sow (whirlpools). New Brunswick has thirty-three Mud Lakes, four Devils Elbows (river bends), ten Dead Brooks, a Five Fathom Hole (a cove), the Kouchibouguac River and Scoodawabscook Bend. And there are some lyrical names as well: Diffin Heath_ Frosty Hollow, Little Dipper Harbour, Rasberry Cove, Strawberry Marsh and Woodpecker Hall. The Gazetteer is one of the most advanced in the world. Committee staff went into the field interviewing, checking spellings and verifying geographical features over a two-year period. Up to this point, names in gazetteers have usually been drawn from maps and records. It has been found, however, that field studies result in an increase of one-hundred percent in the stock of names. They also reveal an inaccuracy rate of twenty percent in documents and maps already printed. The Gazetteer of New Brunswick is available from Information Canada for $4.00. II Too right. A lad came to me for some phosphor which he wanted to use for a Science Fair project. I was able to give him ten different ones, which was I think beyond his wildest expectations. But we have got to be careful that such requests don't become too great in volume for us to handle. They go back to school and show all their mates who then descend on us in droves! But I suppose that's a good thing for the University in the long run. Bert: Yes, I like them to come to us looking for information and ideas. Us: You know the National Science Fair is going to be here this surroner? Bert: Yes. I 1 m looking forward to it very much. I have been involved in the Science Fairs in small ways in the years past, and it will be interesting and exciting to see what the rest of the country has to offer. Us: Thank you very much. II INFORMATION * CANADA Skunk Hollow, Deadman's Ledge, Squirrel Jump Gulch, Horseback Ridge. Names out of the American West? No, they're all in 54 �THIN SECTIONS By R. L. Bennett 4. Mounting the slide 5. Cutting off the mounted slab 6. Thinning down to transparency 7. Hand finishing to petrological WHAT A THIN SECTION IS - AND WHY One of the most striking natural substances seen through a polarizing microscope is a 11 thin section" of rock. A thin section is a sliver of rock .03 mm. thick on a glass slide with a protective glass cover slip. The purpose of the thin section is to examine the crystalline structure of rock, to determine to which category it belongs - igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. Its geological interest, as in stratigraphy, to help in the making of a geological map, or in the identification of a rock type for economic purposes, say as an aggregate for concrete, or to see whether the rock texture is suitable as a foundation for a dam or similar huge engineering project. The name given to the general study is Petrology, which is derived from the greek Petros, rock and ology - the study of. The first person to think of a method of examining the internal structure of a rock was William Nicol, a Scottish Geologist:* he had a lapidary do the work for him, (this was in 1827). He discovered or invented the Nicol prism, a piece of Iceland spar (Ca C03) cut in such a way as to give polarized light. All his work was done purely by hand. The modern method of making a thin section is a comparatively simple mechanized technique, only the last operation being done by hand. 8. Stage One. -The first rough cut: This is done with a 11 cut-off machine 11 equipped with a diamond impregnated cutting blade, which is a round disc of metal of something over a foot diameter having a diamond-charged edge al ittle thicker than the blade itself. This is to prevent the blade from jamming in the cut, and also allows the coolant fluid to wash away the rock powder. The procedure is to have the rock firmly clamped and to have a smooth easy feed against the blade to ensure a smooth clean, cut surface. The rock slab should be about l/8 11 x 1/4 11 the precise size depending on its texture. Stage Two. - 3. Cutting to size for glass slide Having examined the cut surface and selected the area required for the thin section, the slab is marked with a pencil or ink marker, and is cut by a hand or a trim saw. The finished slab should fit on a slide, the edges not overlapping the slide as this would cause difficulties in later stages. ALL THE DETAILS 1. 2. thickness Mounting the cover slip Stage Three. Stages. - The first rough cut Cutting to size for glass slide Grinding to mount on the slide The slab is now ground with 400 carborundum and water on a lapping machine until all the cut marks are out and the surface is flat with even texture, and then further ground on plate glass with 600 or *Mr. Bennett is himself an undoubted Scot! - Ed. 55 Grinding to mount on the slide: �l ,000 grit carborundum to ensure a smooth surface. This is a very important stage. If there are pits in the surface air bubbles wi11 be trapped and that part of the section could be lost during the final stage of grinding. a rate suitable for the texture of the rock. In an a 1ternate technique, the slide is machined by means of a diamond impregnated buff which grinds the slabs down to a set thickness. Stage Six. Stage Four. - -Thinning down to transparency: Mounting on the slide: The now transparent section of rock is removed from the cut off machine and fitted to a similar machine equipped with a diamond buff. The slide is held by a vacuum chuck on a hand operated arm. With the aid of a microthreaded lathe slide, the rock is moved into the buff, and 2 to 4 thousands of an inch is removed at each forward movement. This continues until the slab is thin enough to examine through the microscope. It will be observed that under polarized light the colours given by the quartz, Feldspar crystals will be of a green blue red orange hue. The section should now be washed and hand finished on the glass plate, with 600 carborundum. The slab, having been washed clean, is placed fine ground surface upward on a hot plate at a temperature of about 150°c. This is not a critical temperature but a handy one to work on. A glass slide is cleaned and laid on the hot plate. The adhesive material used is a Thermo plastic under the listing of Lakeside 70. It has very great adhesive powers and a refractive index of 1 .52 which is very important in the determination of the Feldspar group of various igneous rocks. The adherence of the slab to the slide is a matter of melting a small amount of the adhesive on the slide and the slab surface, putting the two surfaces together and pressing out the air bubbles, at the same time centering the rock slab on the slide. Stage Seven. -Handing finishing to petrological thi~kness: Finally, the last touch is added by hand - grinding. As the art of making a thin section of rock is to retain the outside of original slab so as it can be compared against the rock cut, it is advisable not to use a circular movement on the glass. This is apt to give rise to a rounded thin section. The grinding movement should be elongated, with not too firm pressure of the finger on the back of the slide. Depending on the texture which in turn governs the hardness, the final grinding should take a few minutes to produce the standard 11 first order 11 grey to the quartz and Feldspar. A number or mark is scratched on the back of the slide for further identification, should it need to be catalogued for teaching purposes. Stage Five. Cutting off the mounted slab: The now mounted slab is reduced to its proper thickness. The fir:t stage is to cut off the slab with a fine diamond impregnated blade, usually about 511 in diameter and about .012 thick with a speed of 2,000 r.p.m. The slide is held in place by a vacuum chuck, and the feed is advanced by hand at 56 �Stage Eight. - _□ ~Hugh Mill~r, to his dying day, ~ns1sted that nothing oryanic lived 1n the north of Scotland previous to the deposition of the Old Hed conglomerate. The Old Red conglomerate was to him the fossiliferous base in the north He knew and acknowledged the Silurians of the south of Scotland; but he argued that Durness limestone was of Old Red age. Professor Nicol said it was of mountain limestone. Sir Roderick Murchison has classed it Silurian. When Hugh Miller was in Orkney he saw the Old Reg conglomerate at Stromness, and followed the fossiliferous rocks along the sea-shore upwards, until he found a fossil bone, which he termed the 'Nail', and he counted how many feet this 'nail I was above the Old Red conglomerate. He considered this 'nail I the oldest bone in Scotland. So he said. He knew of none older at that time. The Durness fossils being all shells and molluscous animal remains, Hugh probably thought that nothing of a bony nature existed in Scotland older than his Stromness nail And this bone was a fish remain, many hundred feet above the Old conglomerate. But what would Hugh have thought of fish underlying Old Red conglomerate? Fish remains older than conglomerate? Alas, poor Hugh! such is actually the case. The other day I turned up and brought home with me to Thurso the remains of fish that had lain buried below the Old Red conglomerate! But Hugh had seen the 1 Base 1 in many places and preferred retaining the old opinion. I believe the opinion entertained by our highest geologists is that there is Old Red conglomerate of many ages; whereas Hugh Miller considered it as of one age - one great formation. He says that it extends from the Grampians to Orkney, and from Peterhead to the Western Isles; that it lies in a continuous stratum of variable thickness; and that no fish lived then in what is now Scotland. A great mi stake! □ Mounting the cover slip: The surface mounting medium is removed, by using a razor blade or similar instrument, the s1 ide is cleaned off with acetone, chloroform or alcohol. A glass cover slip is cleaned and covered with Canada Balsam enough to cover the slip. This is placed on the hot plate and the balsam allowed to heat, driving off the solvents. It is not necessary to overheat the balsam, which is ready for use when all the air bubbles are out, at which time the rock slide is reversed onto the balsam, i.e. rock section downward. It is then 1 ifted clear off the hot plate and pressed down to remove the air bubbles, making sure the cover slip is evenly down on the rock section and centred on the slide. The surplus balsam is cleaned off by immersing the slide in acetone for a few minutes, and subsequently wiping with a tissue, the process is repeated in chloroform, the slide is wiped clean, washed in warm detergent water and dried. 1 1 • Dear Reader, that is the basics of how a thin section of rock is made - believe me, I have made all sorts. There are many papers and chapters in geological books written on the subject, but, in my view, there is only one way to learn the technique - the more you make, the better the results! Mr. R. L. Bennett came to Lakehead University in 1.96? from Edinburgh University where he was the Chief Technician of the .Department of Geology. He was the founder and first President of the Scottish Mineral and Lapidary Society, the first to be farmed in Great Britain. He enjoys fly fishing and relaxing in his cottage on the Karn River, but regards hunting as a pastime he can do without. 57 �HOW MAY EXPANSION By TEACHERS OF THEIR KEEP IN TOUCH WITH THE SUBJECT? J. S. Griffith Both school and university teachers are faced with the knowledge explosion. Subjects at one time the preserve of university courses are moving into the school curriculum, graduate level subjects are moving into undergraduate level courses. New facts and methods of approach are available. Here I will concentrate on one subject area, but many of the suggestions are applicable to other disciplines. The teacher should use the courses he teaches as an avenue to creative activity. Books, journals and articles should be scanned for lively examples and applications while dissatisfaction with a textbook may be turned into the writing of substitute units and their existence (and the dissatisfaction) brought to the attention of other teachers by publication in Caret or in the Ontario Mathematics Gazette. Cooperation with other teachers in interdepartmental courses and projects, and advice of interested students in competitive opportunities like the Gelfand Club and the various Mathematics Contests will aid in stimulating thought and in keeping abreast of the tide. Organization of a mathematics club with invited talks from visitors (any of us at Lakehead are willing to come), as well as by teachers and advanced students on their independent reading (for example historical development of a certain topic), problem sessions together with visits to the university 1 s periodic seminars (ask to be put on our mailing list) will help, as wi11 the reading of expository books and articles. Again there are two publications that are willing to publish book reviews and reports on articles you find valuable. Attendance at (or organization of) development days or summer institutes will aid you and your fellow teachers. If you think we can help, why not ask? Contribution of articles to the Ontario Mathematics Gazette is another avenue to be explored. We want more articles from practising teachers, especially from those at the elementary level, and the editors are helpful and understanding! All these suggestions require time, motivation and opportunity. I hope that Caret and the Gazette offer some stimulus. There are presumably boards, provincial and federal sources that support investigations into curriculum reform and innovation, staff training, and experimental courses. Why not tell others of the avenues you are aware of by using the embryo 'Letters' section of the Gazette? The establishment of an individual program of study and exploration will help keep you active. Resolve to read through at least one journal or book a week. Each departmental head should encourage junior members to stay alive mathematically and, both in schools and universities, bears the responsibility of keeping teaching loads down so that free time for intellectual stimulation is not el iminated. These ideas were stimulated by a paper by D. E. Christie and J. H. Wells in the American Mathematical Monthly (74, October 1967). Even as the finite encloses an infinite series And in the unlimited limits appear, So the soul of immensity dwells in minutia And in narrowest limits no limits inhere What joy to discern the minute in infinity! The vast to perceive in the small, what divinity! - Jacques 58 Bemou I Ii / 1674-17 0-6_ �ARE TEACHERS BORN OR MADE? ( OR HOW TO KEEP YOUR COOL AMIDST THE EDUCATIONAL ) By Casey A. Gehrels Elementary and secondary education is becoming saturated with terminology that means little to anyone involved in the schools, least of all the people it is serving, the students and their parents. The people involved in education will usually state that the basic function of the school is to produce good citizens and to provide the opportunity to students to develop to their fullest potential. It is difficult to find fault with statements such as these, but we as teachers run into trouble when we try to interpret what they mean in the classroom situation. I should comment here on two points which I believe handicap a teacher in his responsibilities. You can also observe these points with post secondary teachers. First, it is difficult for a teacher to picture that learning takes place anywhere but in a classroom. If you were assigned and paid for performing in a single room in a school, which is true in most schools, you would experience the feeling that this room constitutes a completely separate and unique world for the teacher and the students. You can see a consequence of this situation in the intense difficulty students have in transfering any of their learning to situations outside the i r c 1ass room. Second, teachers like to think that 11 teaching 11 and II 1 ' 1ea r n i ng a re the same th i ng . Th i s is reasonable to expect because teaching gives an i mmed i a·te sense of accomplishment, whereas learning can probably not be observed by another person. It is also easier to teach than to help people learn. let 1 s look at some of the jargon in education. To start with, if you are a good teacher you should have 11 valid and viable aims, and objec- tives 11 • You could even state your 1 objectives in 11 behaviour te This means that you should know you are teaching things that you could predict the results teaching in terms of whats ts will act like when they come off the assembly line. Courses that are up-to-date should be "multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, nondisciplinary or integrated". This means that your courses must not be based on one of the disciplines, otherwise the student won't have a 11 felt need 11 for the material. Many teachers assume that their main function is to organize the ect material for their students. The way to do this in science is along 11 conceptional schemes 11 • This means the teacher must weave spaghettilike story lines through his subject matter, so students will learn important things. If you have taken grade 13 Physics lately you know that it takes a year of following a predetermined line of thought to learn something about the hydrogen atom. If your courses are up-to-date they should be based on 11 process 11 not 11 content 11 • This sort of means that students may end up learning whatever it is they learn; the important thing is what happens while they are learning. As a student in a modern school your learning falls into three "domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor 1 ' . This means t your learning is organized into three areas; what you learn about know ng, feeling and doing. Have you spent any time lately trying to explain to a seven year old what a garbage man is? It didn 1 t he1p your cause much when you ined 59 �I "The main function of a language, communication, has been analyzed by K. BLlhler into three functions: (l) him as a 11 sanitary engineer 11 • You were talking Greek. When teachers get to talking with one another, the jungle of meaningless terms makes the legendary language confusion of Baby 1on 1ook l i ke a Grade l 11 Reade r 11 (reading book). Teaching boils down to being able to talk to and understand your students. Educational jargon stifles this communication. When we train or try to improve teachers, we offer them little but jargon. People do not learn to communicate by having other people talk at them in strange language. Teachers are not made by other teachers or books. But perhaps teachers are born in the classroom? 111111 THE ADVENTURES Of by MATHMAN the expressive function - i.e. the communication serves to express the emotions or thoughts of the speaker; (2) the signalling or stimulative or release function - i.e. the communication serves to stimulate or to release certain reactions in the hearer (for example, linguistic responses); and (3) the descriptive function - i.e. the communication describes a certain state of affairs. These three functions are separable in so far as each is accompanied as a rule by its preceding one but need not be accompanied by its succeeding one. The first two apply also to animal languages, while the third appears to be characteristically human. It is possible (and I believe necessary) to add a fourth to these three functions of Buhler 1 s, and one which is particularly important from our point of view, viz. (4) the argumentative 111111 LU. MATH CLUB After finally reducing the 8th degree differential equation to a series of harmless 1st degree equations, MATHMAN was heading home to his Locally Compact Hausdorff Space on his trusty homomorphism, Hans. Hiding under an open cover, his Arch Enemy SIN- 1 -½- chose a lethal s>O from his arsenal of real numbers. Heedless of the Heine-Borel property, the villian projected hiss right through a finite subcover at our hero!!!! Having previously predicted that the probability of this event was negligible, MATHMAN was caught with his functions down. Frantically he grabbed his pocket APL terminal and by inspection sought a suitable o>O depending only on s to make the sequence of destructive elements to converge in a harmlessly distant Hilbert Space!! or explanatory function - i.e. the presentation and comparison of arguments or explanations in connection with certain definite questions or problems. A certain language may possess the first three functions without the fourth (for example that of a child at the stage when it just names things). Now, in so far as language qua institution has these functions, it may be ambivalent. For example, it may be used by the speaker to hide his emotions or thoughts as much as to express them, or to repress rather than to stimulate argument. And there are different traditions connected with each one of these functions. For example, the different traditions of Italy and of England (where we have the tradition of understatement) in connection with the expressive function of the respective languages are very striking ... 11 1 Will he find a suitable o? Will the computer stay up? Will SIN- 1 t ever converge? 1 CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge - Watch for the answers in the next MATHMAN adventure. [Harper 60 & Row, Inc. - KARL J. POPPER. 1968]. ■ �LAKEHEAD BECOMES CANADIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY New degrees give unique open By Edward Mercy The Senate of lakehead University has given approval to a new ki·nd of degree structure to be known as the B.Sc. (or B.A.) General Programme. It is a particularly suitable study programme for the part-time adult student, although it is open to any student who has met the usual entrance requirements. Consideration of two factors led to the regulatory basis for the new degree. Universities are urged to be relevant to the needs of present day society and to serve the region in which they operate. At a time of severe financial restraint, it is just not possible to develop new courses which meet these criteria. The General Programme overcomes this difficulty by making all existing courses available to the student, subject to certain conditions. FREE CHOICE OF SUBJECTS Most of the programmes of study at Lakehead University are arranged so that the student may meet the requirements of various professions. This means, in general, that choice of courses is severely limited and that specific requirements, especially in the major subject and to some extent in the minor subjects, have to be complied with. There are probably many people in the community who would like to study certain aspects of knowledge but have no desire or need to meet existing pre-requisites. The nature of the General Programme is such that students may make an entirely free choice of subjects to be studied. access (2) The credits may be obtained by taking any available courses offered by the University without regard to published pre-requisites. (3) The student is advised to discuss the importance of pre-requisites for a particular course with the Instructor of the course. (4) Only seven first-year credits may be included. (5) At least two third-year credits must be obtained. (6) The remaining six courses may be taken at second, third or fourth year levels. Thus, the degree programme really is as free as it possibly can be. The only important restriction is the one concerned with pre-requisites because, especially in the more professional courses, prior knowledge of the subject may be essential. But the University recognizes that such prior knowledge may already have been obtained elsewhere than at the University, for example by private study or practical experience. Whether a B.Sc. (or a B.A.) is finally obtained is simply based on whether there is a majority of Science or Arts courses in the fifteen credits. ■ Lakehead University evolved from the Lakehead Technical Institute which was established on June 4, 1946. Classes commenced in January, 1948, in temporary rented quarters in downtown Port Arthur. In September of that year, first year university courses were added to the curriculum. The Lakehead College of Arts, Science and Technology was established by an Act of the Ontario Legislature assented to on March 28, 1956, and proclaimed on August 1, 1957. The present university site was occupied on October 2, 1957. REGULATIONS ARE MINIMAL The regulations for the degree are these: (1) A student must obtain fifteen credits in order to be granted the degree. 61 �TRANSLATION ON A COMPUTER By K. H. V. Booth PROGRAMS PRODUCE ROUGH TRANSLATIONS French word horrone begins with a mute h we actually choose the abbreviated version l'. Next we have to look up speaks and here the difficulty occurs that a normal English/French dictionary will have no entry for this form of the verb, but only for the infinitive speak. We could possibly program the computer to recognize that speaks consists of the root form speak, together with the endings, but it turns out to be easier to store all possible forms of verbs (speaks, speaking, spoken, etc.) in our computer dictionary. Of course our program must also be able to recognize compound forms such as will speak, has spoken, etc. and choose the appropriate French equivalent. The latter process incidentally entails coping with the numerous irregular verbs of unhappy memory for anyone who has struggled to learn French! Fortunately, however, all this is fairly easy to accomplish. Computers are very efficient at storing long lists of words and at referring to them. They can also be made to manipulate words, adding endings, etc. using the techniques of text processing. Another problem which has to be faced is that word order is rarely the same in two languages. Suppose that we consider the sentence: The blind man speaks. In the French equivalent: L'horro-ne aveugle parle. the adjective must be placed after the noun instead of before it as in English, and this is just one example of the differences between English and French in this respect. Again, this is a task which can easily be programmed into the computer. For many years work has been going on directed at producing translations from one language to another using a computing machine. Much attention has been paid to the problem involved in translation to and from English and Russian, but here in Canada work has concentrated on English to French translation for the reason that our bilingual laws necessitate a great deal of this. So far the results of this work have been one or two programs which produce rough but fairly understandable translations of technical papers from Russian into English, and a program, developed at the University of Saskatchewan, which has processed about 10,000 words of translation from English into French. The output is far from perfect but can be understood and edited fairly easily by a French speaker. To see why we are still far from producing perfect translation we must look in more detail at some of the processes which are entailed. THE METHODOLOGY Suppose that we wish to translate the sentence: The man speaks. into French. The first step is to look up each word of the sentence in a dictionary, for unlike ourselves the computer cannot 11 recall 11 information instantaneously, but must consult the dictionary each time. The French equivalent of the will be found to have four alternative forms, 1e, 1a, 1 1 and 1es, depending on the gender and person of the following noun and the first task is to pick the correct form. The dictionary entry for man will contain the information that this is a masculine singular noun, normally requ1r1ng the translation le, but since the WORDS ARE TWO-FACED So far, however, we have ignored one huge difficulty. When we look up 62 �man i n our di ct i ona ry, the re wi 11 be IDIOMS AND STYLE three different translations depending on whether the word is used as a noun, adjective (man sized) or verb (to man the ship). Similarly blind might be either a noun, adjective or verb. Faced with multi-purpose words such as these (and in a typical piece of prose about half will consist of them) how can the computer decide on the correct choice? Several ways have been suggested. One of these is to make the computer 11 pa rse 11 the Eng 1 i sh sentence, using a set of construction rules which define the combinations of parts of speech which are permissable in a grammatical sentence. For example, the combination (Adjective Noun Verb) is possible, whereas the combination (Adjective Verb Noun) is not. This method which has been evolved by a group at the University of Montreal is theoretically attractive since new rules can be added easily. In application to actual texts, however, it appears less so, since the multiplicity of possible parsings which have to be considered make it very slow, particularly for long sentences. In the method developed at the University of Saskatchewan a completely different approach based on the statistical likelihood of the function of each word in a sentence is used. Instead of defining rules for constructions, we use statistics accumulated from text of similar type to make decisions on the function of each word in a sentence. This method is very fast but has the disadvantage that, being statistical, mistakes are made sometimes and for this reason the translation must be checked by a post-editor who corrects such errors (they are usually obvious). The error rate is low enough, about 3.5%, to make this possible for the type of text which we have tested so far. Our difficulties are not at an end, however, even when the parsing problem is disposed of. Every language has an abundance of "idioms 11 , i . e. , phrases which do not literally mean what they say. As an example consider the English saying 11 like it or lump it 11 which nearly brought Prime Minister Trudeau to grief. Similarly French has many idiomatic phrases which cannot be rendered word for word into English, for example, 11 boite de nuit 11 , which is the French version of 11 night club 11 and which translates literally as 11 box of night 11 • This problem can be overcome by storing a dictionary of idioms and making the program locate any which may occur in a sentence before translating it. In the program developed at the University of Saskatchewan we have a very efficient routine for accomplishing this. A final and still unsolved difficulty must be mentioned. In the sentence: I~ is within the province of the prov~nce to deal with education. province is used twice as a noun, but requires two different translations in French. This is a problem in semantics (i.e. meaning) and no one as yet has found a practical way of solving it. The solution adopted so far is to print both possible translations and leave it to the post-editor to decide. Sti11 more intractable are the problems of choosing the 11 best 11 French equivalent where more than one exist for a particular word in a particular sense. This involves considerations of 11 style 11 and as yet we have no idea how to make a computer make such choices. Indeed human translators will sometimes disagree on them so perhaps it is too much to expect a mere machine to succeed! England and America are two countries separated by the same language. -G.9.S. 63 �BLACK AND WHITE HOLES By J. S. Griffith Now that black and white holes have become both respectable objects of scientific investigation, what are their accepted properties? Black holes appear to be capable of having a wide variety of sizes ranging from one hundred thousandth of a gram (l) to solar sized objects and up to 10 10 solar masses (in galactic nuclei i) (2) . They result from the complete gravitational collapse of objects. Space and time are so strongly curved that no radiation can escape from the object into our Universe, nothing material can escape, and any attempt to explore the black hole by the physical introduction of a space probe would result in the destruction of the probe. The only characteristics of the probe that would still exist are its mass, electric charge, and linear and angular momentum. These three quantities are the only characteristics of the hole that may· be measured by their effect on the orbits of both charged and uncharged objects (from normal stars to space probes) which pass near the black hole or orbit around it. The appearance of a black hole depends upon the location and motion of the observer. If a spaceship was fortunate (?) enough to be present during a collapse and the astronauts decided to follow the collapsing matter down into the black hole, they would find the matter being crushed to increasingly higher densities, and the ship (and the astronauts themselves) torn apart by increasing tidal forces. No form of engine, rocket or nuclear powered, would be sufficient to save them from their fate, once the ship had crossed a certain critical position (the 1 horizon 1 ) . The ultimate collapse wi11 occur a finite time after the passage of the surface, and is inescapable. The interchangeability of space and time in the black hole leads to an inevitable passage to the centre of the hole as time increases. As time advances, all objects within the horizon move towards the centre. Should the astronauts decide on a safer course of action and watch the collapse from a great distance, they will find all signals and information from the later phases of collapse denied to them. These signals are caught up in the collapse of space-time and can never escape into the surrounding universe. However, during the formation of a black hole, pulses and trains of gravitational radiation will be given out. Matter falling into a black hole will be compressed and heated to about 10 11 °K as it is funnelled into the hole, and X-ray and Y-ray radiation may be observed. Jets and similar activity produced in the ergosphere of rotating black holes may be observed. The ergosphere. This is the region between the surface of infinite redshift and the horizon. If a spaceship ejects an escape capsule in this region, with the ship itself being caught up into the black hole, the capsule can escape (as it has more energy than the original spaceship) (4). There is no way for a spaceship to remain at rest in the ergosphere, however it fires its motors! As the core of a late giant star co11apses in volume by a factor of one million, the material of the core starts moving in slowly. The rate of collapse quickly increases, with the inner part of the core soon so contracted that it draws the core down much faster than the surrounding envelope. If the mass and the velocity of implosion are large enough, complete collapse ensues with the production of a black hole. However, in 64 �other conditions the collapse is suddenly halted, releasing a great deal of kinetic energy of motion into heat energy - like thousands of nuclear explosions. The consequent high temperatures 1ead to high pressures and consequent reversal of the implosion, propelling the envelope into space with the emission of cosmic rays and an expanding cloud of ions. A star of the order of the solar mass was responsible for what we observe as the Crab Nebula. If the star were rotating (as most stars are) and had a magnetic field, the winding up of magnetic lines of force (like cotton on a reel) leads to an elongation in the direction of the axis of rotation (3) and the emission of jets of matter from the poles. Added interest to the computation of such a situation arises when we have to take into account nuclear reactions - a problem that is, as yet, unsolved. The collapse into a black hole is preceded by th~ star passing quickly through the neutron-star phase. Other names for black hole are 'continuing collapse' and 1 frozen star•. Seen by the distant (wiser) spaceship crew, the collapse will never be complete (the radius diminishes exponentially with time). However, the probe moving with the matter (if it somehow can survive the process, which seems highly improbable) will see the dimensions become indefinitely small after a short period of time. The system will have a completely black appearance to the external spaceship. No light escapes, and laser beams shot at it disappear as they fall in. An adventuresome crew member shot into the hole would disappear to his fellows. Manoeuvering close to the hole and inserting a long stick or probe would lead to fragmentation of the stick by tidal forces and the disappearance of the broken pieces. Before the critical Schwarzschild radius is reached, light emitted from a specific cone can escape. As the Schwarzschild radius is approached the core becomes smaller, with ultimately (once the critical radius is passed) the 1 ight being perpetually caught by the collapsing geometry of space-time around the material in the hole. Should the external spaceship venture within the critical radius, it can never escape, and is forced towards the centre of the hole. No matter what sort of material takes part in the collapse, the characteristics of the black hole are the same, apart from the mass, charge and angular momentum. "A black hole has no hair}' (2). How can black holes be detected? Their size is of the order of 15 kilometers, so direct visual observation is out of the question. A companion 'normal I star may be observed orbiting around a black hole. Material from the companion may be drawn into the hole and disappear. Black holes may exist within stars (and even in the Sun~) (1). A black hole moving through an interstellar cloud may be observed as it sucks up material. The i n fl ow of mate ri a 1 wi l l 1ea d to emission in the X-ray region or in the Y-ray region (5). Orbiting teiescopes may give observations of such events. Weber's observations of gravitational waves may indicate a stellar collapse rate in the nucleus of the Galaxy of over one a day (l). In this reference is discussed low mass objects that have gravitationally collapsed, which may account for the low value of the density of the Universe, and indeed they may already have been observed as unidentified tracks on bubble chamber photographs. If, as is suggested in Ref. (1), the Sun has a central hole of mass 10 17 gm, radius 10- 11 cm, then in 10,000,000 years the Sun will be totally absorbed, giving first pulsar-quake-like phenomena followed by rapid collapse with the emission possibly of gravitational waves. This 65 �theory indicates that 1 ife on the Earth is 1 imited, instead of having billions of years to go, we have only millions. Even then, if we take man to have been 1 civilized 1 for ten thousand years, we are still in the first one thousandth part of our possible evolutionary development. We may compare our present state of development to a twenty day old baby, who can at least expect to survive to the age of fifty years. Certainly the human race has far to go, and much time for refinement of our present culture. Science fiction writers have a great range of time to deal with, and we can ~nly hope that human nature will change, so that eventually we are much more civilized. Perhaps we have already been examined by galactic civilization, classified as in the preplaypen stage, and left to our childish devices until we are worthy, in our adulthood of joining a galactic federation! R.M. Hjellming (National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank, W. Va.) has propounded the theory that black holes must have their opposites - white holes. Theories about pairs of complementary opposites are relatively common (matter and antimatter, electrons and positrons, etc.). Just as black holes take matter out of our universe (the ultimate in garbage disposal?), white holes are places where material enters our university. Maybe all material that leaves by the black hole route returns by white holes, having been purified 1 by intense heat and pressure, or we may be exchanging material with one or more other universes, with each maintained in a steady state, losing just as much as one gains. The white hole hypothesis is claimed to be an explanation for the energy source of quasars and galactic nucleii, for even thermonuclear reactions are insuffi- cient to provide the power. If energy and matter are pouring in from another universe, then sufficient energy may be available. The mathematical and physical details are not yet fully worked out, but there are tempting extrapolations and questions. 1) Can some way be found of passing information from one universe to another? 2) Does another, much more advanced, universe use ours as a 'garbage disposal unit' - is energy strictly conserved, so that they get back purified versions of what they disposed of? 3) Could one wage war, one universe against another, by putting more and more material into black holes, in the hope that the other universes are inflicted by a raise in radiation? (What time lag is there between disappearance in one black hole and appearance in a white hole?) 4) Is life in our universe bred from some incompletely processed garbage from another universe - a 'black hole' that somehow was not functioning correctly? 5) What relationship is there between the distribution of black holes in one universe and white holes in another? 6) Galactic nucleii appear to be long lived objects - is this consistent with a corresponding long lived black hole? There is a great deal more work to be done before these objects are fully explained and the white hole/ dual universe theory put on a firm foundation. REFERENCES (1) Hawking, S., Gravitational ly collapsed objects of very low mass', Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 152, 75 (1971). (2) Ruffini, R. and Wheeler, J.A., 'Introducing the black hole', Physics Today, January 1971, p. 30. 66 1 �(3) Leblanc, J.M. and Wilson, J.R., Lawrence Radiation Laboratory publ ication UCRL - 71873 (1969). (4) Penrose, R., Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, numero speciale 252 (1969). (5) Zel 1 dovich, Ya. B. and Novitrov ' I .D., Sov. Phys. - Dokl 2_, 246 (1964). tween any two of the points is groatl'r than or equal to d?" The value of r depends on the size of the needle point and d depends on the prescribed size of the anqels. When dis small relative tor-the answer to the above question is approximately one-half the answer to t~e same question on a sphere, so, g1ve or take half an angel, we will consider the question on a sphere. POLLEN GRAINS The Dutch botanist P.M.L. Tammes in 1930 (3) interpreted the placing of such points on a sphere as an arran~ement of orifices on a pollen gra1n. He wanted to explain the distribution on spherical pollen grains of the orifices {hereafter called exit places) at which a pollen tube can emerge in the process of fertilization. He observed, for example, that there are frequently 3,4 6 8 or 12 exit places, while 7,9,10 ~r~ quite rare and 5 and 11 exit places almost never occur. Further, the same plant may produce pollen grains with different numbers of exit places. However, each pollen tube requires a certain amount of space, so there is a number d, which turns out to be genetically invariant, such that the distance between any two exit places is at least a. Nature 1 s packing problem is placing as many exit places as possible on a pollen grain, subject to the distance restriction, in order to maximize the chances of fertilization. MISANTHROPES For another view of the problem of the pollen grain or of the angels consider n misanthropic individuals. Each so hates his fellow misanthropes that he wants to get as far away from them as possible. The misanthropes want to maximize the minimum distance between any two of them, while it is important for the pollen grain to maximize the number of exit places for a given minimum distance. However, a complete I/A\I IPI/A\ICl~lnl~IGI IPlil®lilllEl~I by J. H. M. Whitfield* How should trees in an orchard be arranged, how should mills in an urban area be situated, boxes in a warehouse tables in a night club, containerized' cargo in the hold of a ship, etc.? These are all types of packing problems. In this note we briefly consider a particular problem: the packing of a.number.of equal nonoverlapping circles 1n a sphere. The influence on the present note of the expository article {l) by H.S.M. Coxeter and the popular presentation {2) by Victor Klee is gratefully acknowledged. ANGELS One of the earliest known packing problems of the type we wish to consider is the medieval theological prob 1em: "How many angels can dance on the point of a needle?" To formulate the problem mathematically, we assume that the point is a hemisphere, the angels are all of the same size and they dance by spinning with their wings tightly folded. {A slightly weaker set of restrictions would allow the size of the angels to vary but restrict their dancing within a circle of fixed radius. At least this would allow the smaller angels more freedom in their dance!) We arrive at the mathematical problem "What is the maximum number of points that can be placed on a hemisphere of radius r so that the distance be- 61 �solution for one problem yields a complete solution to the other. The solution for n misanthropes are reported by Coxeter for n between 2 and 13 and n = 24. Some of the solutions are easily seen. Two misanthropes should live at opposite poles and three at the vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a great circle. Given four miserable persons, they should locate themselves at the vertices of a regular tetrahedron inscribed in the sphere. Fig. l shows the best arrangement of 5 and 6 misanthropes. You will observe that the solution for 5 is not unique as the three on the equator can be rearranged as long as the distance between any two of them is at least¼ of the circumference. Also, you will note that the minimum distance is the same for 5 and 6. This explains Tammes 1 observation that five exit places on a pollen grain almost never occur, for, if the grain is large enough to accommodate five, it can also accommodate six. Nature makes the best choice. A similar situation obtains in the case of 11 and 12 misanthropes. For n = 12, they should dwell at the vertices of a regular icosahedron inscribed in the sphere and for 11, just remove one of the vertices. Hence Tammes 1 observation that 11 exit places on a pollen grain occur infrequently. The other known solutions can be found in the indicated reference. The reader may wish to find the solution for 8 misanthropes, which is not difficult but mildly surprising. We have here an easily stated and easily visualized geometric problem which, generally speaking, is unsolved! Where should sixteen or twenty miserable people live? Figure I. Discussion of Shapes 11 presented to the High School Mathematics Teachers on their Professional Development Day, October 1972. ( 1) Coxete r, H. S. M. , 11 The prob 1em of packing a number of equal nonoverlapping circles on a sphere 11 , Trans. New York Acad. Sci. (2) 24 (1962), 320-31. (2) Klee, Victor, 11 Shapes of the Future", Am. Scientist .22_, 84-91 (1971). (3) Tammes, P.M.L., 0n the origin of the number and arrangement of the plates of exit on the surface of pollen grains 11 , Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl. 27, 1-84 (1930). - References ·kThis note is extracted from a talk entitled "Convexity: An Elementary 68 11 �THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE GAME OF BRIDGE By Li r ry Hansen The game of bridge has developed into a pastime enjoyed by a great many people around the world. People p]ay the game for many reasons but in this article I would 1 ike to concentrate on the aspects of the game that appeal to people with scientific minds. For the sake of brevity, I will assume that the reader has at least a knowledge of the basic rules of bridge. However I will briefly describe the three phases of the game in order to bring out some important points that will have a bearing on the remainder of the article. to arrive at a contract better than the par contract. Since an above par contract for one side is a below par contract for the other side the conclusion is that the result of perfect bidding would be that every hand would be played at the par contract. However since it is illegal for a player to look at any cards except his own during the bidding and since there are not enough possible bidding sequences to describe the other three hands completely it is impossib1e for a player to always know what the par contract is on the various deals he encounters. In actual play it is very rare for a player to know what the par contract is before the play of the hand begins. Therefore, we can draw the conclusion that even if all four participants co-operated there is no perfect bidding system that will always result in the par contract being reached. THE DEAL The fifty-two cards are shuffled to produce a random order, then they are dealt face down to the four players so that each one sees only his thirteen cards. If we assume for a moment that each contestant could see a11 four hands then it would be possible to decide the maximum number of tricks that each partnership could take if we assume that the contestants are capable of perfect play and perfect defense. From this it is possible to deduce whether or not the pair that can take fewer tricks (or the same number of tricks but in a lower ranking contract) will lose more points by sacrificing or by letting the opponents play in their best contract. The least number of points that this pair can lose is called the value of the hand and the contract that can be played to arrive at this result is called the par contract. If we consider the game of bridge from a game theoretic standpoint we see that if we assign specific values for part scores and non-vulnerable games each deal produces a type of two person game with a unique value and at least one saddle point. (See Appendix). THE PLAY After the cards have been dealt and the bidding is completed the defender on the declarer's left finds himself in the position of having to make the opening lead. The only information that this defender has at his disposal is a knowledge of his own thirteen cards and an inferential knowledge, gained by listening to the bidding, of the distribution of the remaining cards. We can see that the success or failure of many contracts rests upon the crucial decision of which card to select for the opening lead. Once the opening lead has been made and the dummy is spread each player has a knowledge of the location of at least half of the cards in the deck. Declarer 1 s responsibility is to take as many tricks as possible with his primary aim being to make the contract. On the other hand, the defenders try to take as many tricks as THE BIDDING This phase of the game gives each partnership the opportunity to attempt 69 �possible in order to defeat the contract. The declarer formulates all the plans for his side, whereas successful defence requires that both defenders arrive at an accurate analysis of the situation~ formulate a successful line of attack and coordinate their efforts to bring about the desired result. We see then that no matter how difficult it is to be a capable declarer it is even more difficult to be successful in defence. An application of the laws of probability indicates that approximately 25% of the time a bridge p1ayer is dummy, 25% of the time he is declarer and 50% of the time he· is a defender. Consequently, a prerequisite for achieving success as a bridge partnership is the mastery of the art of defence. that have evolved are the natural approach and the coded or artificial approach. With the natural approach when you bid spades you are suggesting a possible final contract in spades or at least you are showing high card values in spades. However, with the coded approach a spade bid might mean almost anything. To illustrate, an opening bid of two diamonds, depending on the system you are playing, might mean (i) a hand strong enough to make a game in diamonds, ( i i) a hand containing eleven to fifteen high card points and a singleton or void in diamonds (iii) a hand of slam potential that is asking for aces (iv) a hand containing four spades and five hearts and eleven to sixteen high card points. In tournament bridge the rules make it mandatory to explain any special understandings that a partnership has about a particular bid. This ruling reduces some of the power of coded systems. Nuisance bids interjected by the opposition also have a tendency to weaken the power of artificial sequences. Natural systems on the other hand, do not have the required precision to explore accurately for slam contracts. The path that most exp~rts seem to follow is to play a system that is basically natural with the addition of certain artificial bids and sequences. BIDDING SYSTEMS Since it is impossible for a partnership to legally gain the necessary knowledge about the placement of all fifty-two cards in order to bid with assurance to the par contract, bidding systems are constructed on the basis of the partnership holding of twentysix cards. An experienced player by looking at his hand and his partner's can assess approximately how many tricks the two hands together will produce in play. This assessment is based on application of the laws of probability to the missing cards and an understanding of how combinations of cards can be treated to produce the maximum number of tricks. The main aim of any bidding system is to produce a sequence of bids that will give at least one of the partners a very clear picture of his partner's hand so that someone is in the position of being able to decide upon a sensible final contract. (One problem many players encounter is that of realizing when they have already bid up to six spades, for example, that the most they could possibly make is five spades). The two basic approaches to bidding DEFENCE While the eventual declarer and his partner are bidding back and forth, exchanging information that will enable them to decide upon a final contract, the defenders are listening and thereby gaining the same information about their opponents' hands. This information is one of the defenders' most valuable tools in their attempt to make as many tricks as possible on a given hand. A second device used by all expert defenders is a signalling code in the play of equivalent cards. These signals tell each defender 70 �whether or not his partner has an even or odd number of diamonds, whether he should play hearts if he gets on lead and so on. However, just as the rules of bridge make it mandatory to explain bidding understandings to your opponents, they also require that you inform declarer of the meaning of def~nsive card play signals. Consequently, everything the expert defender does to improve his lot in life makes it a little easier for the expert declarer to play his cards. and refinement of successful defensive play and in the honing of the skills required for expert declarer play. In fact, just as pursuit of knowledge in any of the sciences can become a life-long pastime and pleasure, the game of bridge can prove to be a scientific ego trip of virtually limitless horizons. APPEND IX The following table displays some of the possible contracts and the resulting scores for a typical hand of bridge. All scores are given relative to N-S. For example, -80 means that N-S lose 80 points irrespective of which column the -80 appears in. Successful part-score contracts receive a bonus of 50 points. On this particular hand N-S are vulnerable and E-W are not. The saddle point for this hand occurs when N-S bid and make 2S. If E-W bid more, they will get doubled and lose more than 110 points and if N-S bid less, then E-W can bid 2H and lose only 100 points if they are doubled. DECLARER PLAY For several years I thought that it was only necessary to attain one goal in order to become an expert declarer. I believed that al 1 one had to do was to look at the opening 1ead, the dummy and one I s. own hand and use the laws of probability to arrive at the most likely distribution of the missing cards in the opponents' hands and then, use one's knowledge of card combinations to arrive at a line of play that mathematically offered the best chance for success. Being expert in this aspect of the game will a11ow you to do reasonably well in most levels of bridge. However, to reach the pinnacle of expert play one has to be capable of inferential location of missing cards as opposed to probability location of missing cards. To locate cards inferentially one has to understand the opponents' system of bidding and defensive play exactly as well as they do. The next step is to climb into their minds and decide which distribution of the outstanding cards is the one that seems to mesh with the bids and plays that they did and didn't make. After this has been done it is a fairly simple matter to decide how to play the hand. N-S CONTRACT INT 2C 2D 2H 2S 2NT 3C 3D CONCLUSION 3H It can be seen that the game of bridge offers intellectual challenges in the creation and use of effective bidding systems in the development 3S 11 ... a; -.::, j j !i lC 1D 1H 1S ~ 70 70 -100 -= 140 I § 50 50 -.::, a., 1 100 140 -200 -80 100 -160 110 90 360 100 300 180 100 -100 -100 -200 50 -200 -200 -500 100 300 100 50 300 100 150 100 500 300 500 500 300 700 110 670 -100 -200 -200 -200 -300 -100 -500 -500 -800 -200 150 150 100 200 �ACROSS 1[9,8] Cobras, kraits and rattlers 10[ 7] Atoms in a crystal are arranged in a window 11[ 7] Curricu1a 12[ 5] Send a payment to reduce disease symptoms 13[ 5] American vital power 14[ 5] 11 Junior 11 is a detached piece of plant 15[ 7 Scientists recognize this as a sound unit 19[ 4] The most frequent state of a boy 21[ 4] Hot and cold fits this clue 22[ 7] Genus Falco 23[ 6] Relating to either of the muscular flaps in front of the teeth 24[ 6] To transfer a liquid, take an 25[ 7 26[ 4] 28[ 4] 30[ 7] 32[ 5] initial sip - then aspirate on Shorten a structure to cross a river The upper end of a mountain valley cherishes a desire for good One's cards Puts into symbols for economy A theatre for musical contests sounds like a bad state to be in A short physician 34[ 5] 35[ 5] ' 37[ 7] A change of momentum 38[ 7] A dashing large wing covering 39[9,8] The function of ductless glands C I *clues* e s DOWN 18[ 7 ] Diminishes 20[ 5 ] Watered mohair in an interference pattern 21[ 5 ] A helium nucleus begins an alphabet 27[ 7 ] A swimming leg 29[ 7] Symbols of medicine 31[ 6 ] A member of the Icteridae from Baltimore 33[ 5 ] An acid from an unripe apple 34[ 5 ] Strait across which Brunel built a tubular bridge 35[ 4] A Persian fairy begins to surround 36[ 4 l A famous account of heroic proportions 1[17] A rubbery plastic 2[ 7 1 A whole number 3[ 5] Salix viminalis makes baskets 4[ 4] At an end 5[ 6] Norway Lobsters 6[ 4] Where dawn approximately is 7[ 5] Boulder clays or shales found in stores 8[ 7 ] Charging ready to fire 9 [7,3,7] The theme of Libera 1 Science courses 15[ 7] Reduce in pressure 16 [ 7 ] 0 1d heat 17[ 7] Thought about with a frown on eggs 72 �CRYPTIC C OS ~ 0 ~ ~ 0 □ 13 ~ ~ , □ ~ ~ ~:J lTTJ LB ~~, ~ ~ ~ ~ 0✓0 • 0,n %1 ~-~ 20 ~/--n ~22 %I □ 23 ~ wA1 ~□ ~ ~----12 • •.~ ~25 .. □ % ~ ~~I% □% I , / ~ _, ~-~,131 ~ w 37 w w //~35 7 I m_///, ~ % □ ~ 36 , ~ ~ ~38 39 or, in desperation, telephone: II EXT. 529 73 807-3 45·2121 ~ ?$ % w, - �QUICK ~ CROSSWORD ACROSS 1 [13] Change of structure 6 [ s 1 Wool y an i ma 1s 7[ s ] Foss i 1 res i n 8[ 3 ] Pitch 9 [ 6 ] Me ta 1 27 11 [ 6 ] Purple dye 13 [ 3 l Snake 1i ke fish 14( s ] Mexican aboriginal 16 [ s ] Castrated bull 18[13] Flashes of light DOWN 1[13] "Kissing disease" 2[ s ] Shinbone 3( 3] One male human 4( 6 ] Smal 1 explosion 5[13] One thing on top of another 6 [ s ] lberi an country 1O[ s ] Bi 1e--secreti ng gland 12 [ 6 ] From the centre 15[ 5] Latin early spring flowers 17 [ 3 1 Oeoxyri bonucl eic acid A s T R 0 I N 0 A L u N I T C T I 0 N A N D R E A C T I 0 N A T u R A L L 0 A R T H M 75 s * SOLUTIONS * �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. "CARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E 1 �PLE S ABOU L FOR OT STUDENTS R O R AD � https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/a9d84167547aaa94027c590115533f94.pdf c6d8440138e86b3aa3f2aa903e9cf05c PDF Text Text "f-h ·• ~~p~~ -~~--~ ~ .. ~Y,-~\ ""f"~~ - -• 1 ·• l.,b. ~ • ~ ;s "-•"A . .... . • ~ - , <,,;_I lJI'- ~ •'•r,~~1.~k)~f~ J• -~ .• ~-r. ·.- t~ ~◄ •' DISTANCE CHART RADAR AND RADIO COMMUNICATIONS ,JI \. ri~, { ,.~,~~ Light, Electricity and Radar Waves travel at 186,282 miles per second. This graph indicates the time it takes from earth for these waves to reach points shown. :}~~w ~ Jl PLANETS TIME TIME GALAXIES LAPSE LAPSE MERCURY 4¼ min. ANDROMEDA VENUS 2 min. 18 sec. 1,500,000 lgt. yrs.* MARS 4 min. 21 sec. ALPHA CENTURI JUPITER 35min. llsec. 4 yrs. 7 mon. 7 days SATURN 1hr. 11 sec. URANUS 2 hr. 32 min. OUR SUN 7 min. 59 sec. NEPTUNE 4 hr. 2 min. MOON 1.23 sec. PLUTO 6 hr. 25 min. MOON . ·. ..... : - i.~ . . . .. • • . ·t ·: *LIGHT YEAR-The speed of light, approx. 186,282 miles per sec., times 60 sec., times 60 min., times 24 hrs., times 365 days. . 43 1/3 days MARS 57 2/3 days MERCURY 831/3 days 6111/3 days I I I I I I Min. Distance from Earth (in m1les1 221,463 26,000,000 34,600,000 50,000,000 367,000,000 SATURN 12411/J days 745,000,000 URANUS 268!1/3 days 1,608,800,000 NEPTUNE 4466 I 2,679,600.000 days I 2,668,000,000 • -~·,_.: : .. :·:;· ·. ·,;.-'.' . • • ·:.~~~ - . '. : •. :·.• ·-·. • • PLUTO C'\ · • · .',"t ; ,:.. . . ,v.0\' ..·... : • • 3 600 M,. D,a. . .. . . , PLUTO 4446 2/3 days •• ····• . ' known . ·:;: • ,. .- EROS ' • -.~-,,-- . • ..• ... . .""I ·P.L ~ :" ,7~ti;fii1 ..... - p,'9 •• ., . • • ]::~/T/JY:~\-·- . ·, ..: .... •• Dia. •· •;)fo}//· . ... .·-%-:·.,., 865,000 Dia. , ... .. ' 0~ tj,~~ ~~ ~~e~ ;_",::·~'\-:-~ -;:-;, •· -·i .-··.- ' ..... •.:.·,·,., ,- ~ SUN ·~,. ' .. ' SUN SPOTS ";: . .. • !_!-. Ji. . . .' • • • ; i .; ',:-kc· ••. • . .. -...: .. \ ~ 23 Hrs., 56 Min. • :~~:-\-:~~.. ....... · c=.... ~ ·· \ ,:... •• .. \if · ..• .. : •• ....~ I ~ . . ,. . . ' ...... . . .. • • "'-l"~'- ,· ...' .. •'• ' •, ~ -:_'.·: ...". ~ ~ : · · , : ;- : •. • a • • - ~-,_,~ . .... .?~ .. . ~..::f,..• :::~::.·< •.• .:~J: ···... 12,000 Light Years , 170,000 Light Yea • • •. ;~:.;: ·..... ..... -~~ ·~ ~ . -~ ....:-·· ..' .... .. ' :. .. .. \ ;· .. ·Jit~· .· ... ... ' • ,: ~- .. .-:-4:..~~,"'..:. -:· . - • ' .Jllll:!r •" ./)f· .. . . ARTH -7,918 Mi. Dia.·.•,,.:· ..: :_·::•:•::~·.-..-·· ·:. , SURFACE TEMP. ll~000° CENTRE 35 Million° • • C:,\)~ ~-c.0~ e,e ... ' "\ • . , NEPTUNE 1,000 Mi. D Hrs., 40 M, ~ • U . f .... !_··· ···: . t :·. '· • .• ; ' J .. .. ..:; .: ~ .. . --· ::: · ·. ~ 1,500 to ~0,000 known \ .. ·.,.;, ·., .... ff"'.,.,_' ca.. ~~ ASTEROIDS • VENUS .. · :-~~:·.... -.:• ••• ::/f1:<1, fi.~:--_·:·.:, .• •• •· . __ .. ES 8-4/5 hrs. JUPITER I • ~,· ! Speed 25,000 m.p.h. Arrive Leaving Earth for t .: :·:)::·,:f -~. • SPACE SHIP TIME SCHEDULE . • • Rings 41,500 Miles Wide • . ~- . . , • • ' ., • • . •A' • ' ,.,r--\ ,,. .• 1·•.._;;. A.RT •· PRINTING ::!,- • . · ;· ~ . ·.>•··.:~ ' •. , ,_·, . ' •• .. • ,'-- ' • - ' 1 1 ' ' ..... . ANDROMEDA GALAXY 1,500,000 Light Years Distant ~l .--~~ ~ •. co. TOR ONTO ' � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 2 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 2, 1973. Articles on a variety of topics: A letter from Mme Jeanne Sauve from the Minister of State Science and Technology to Dr. John Hart from Lakehead University Department of Physics Letters to the editor Scientific explanations and hypotheses Science in everyday thought Wisdom in education and jobs by Jim Wheeler Basic Air Navigation by Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw Constructing a bird observation tower to study ring-billed gulls on Granite Island in Black Bay by John R Butler Biologists and biology Air and water pollutants Nuclear reactors, atomic energy and sources of energy Physics and biology Future careers and obsolete jobs Travels in Mexico Science in nursing Interview with Lakehead University Chemistry Storekeeper Petrology, the study of rocks, thin sections and geology Computer translations Solar system black and white holes, astronomy Also contains photographs, crossword puzzles and an outer space print. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text