1 10 13229 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e52be80c6cfc26e1bb8a329a4615ed93.pdf f6fc4305421de8156d07ad270e737385 PDF Text Text fl;C LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIE~ VOLUME 1 --- NUMBER 6 ~~~;~~·' -~~=~~~ r - \.G, 60 cen. s> �caret A LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW in corpora ting LAKEHEAD UNNERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CARET IS PUBLISHED BY THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO, CANADA. P7B 5E1 EDITOR Dr. G. Harvais Lakehead University ASSOCIATE EDITOR Mr. B. Spenceley CONTENTS Volume 1, Number 6, November 1975 A History of Photography 2 by Dr. A. D. Booth Lakehead University Culture, Politics and Geography: or ..... EDITORIAL BOARD Mr. W. Bilbrough, Lakeview High School, Thunder Bay. 4 by Mr. Robert S. Dilley The Strategy of Concentrated Fire Power 8 by Air Cadet L. Mathemaki (Ret'd) Mr. G. Campbell, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. C. Gehrels, Mathematics and the Arts Student 11 by Dr. C. C. Mutambirwa Ontario Ministry of Education. Mr. W. Lajoie, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. J. Palko, Fort William Collegiate Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. T. Reynolds, Queen Elizabeth High School, Sioux Lookout. Challenges to Fishery Resource Management The Marriage Problem Printing: LU. Printshop Design: LU. Media Services 15 by Professor L. Mathemaki What is Topology? 17 by Dr. S.A. Naimpa/ly Inductive Justification of Induction Typesetting: ARGUS and friends 13 by Professor W. Mo mot 18 by Dr. Gunars Tomsons Photo-degradable Plastics 21 by Dr. N.A. Weir The Compound Microscope 24 by Mr. 8. Spenceley THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN CARET DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE OPINIONS OF THE EDITOR, THE FACULTY OR THE UNIVERSITY. OUR COVER relates to our article "A History of Photography" and depicts Durer's use of the pin-hole camera. �2. AHISTOR OF PH by: Dr. Andrew D. Booth Lakehead University, Thunder Bay A science more than 250 years old The science, as distinct from the art, of photography is now more than 250 years old since the basic experiment on the blackening of silver salts through the action of I ight was conducted by J. H. Schulze in 1725. Schulze did not make a photograph as we now understand it but used a sensitive material which consisted of a mixture of chalk and silver nitrate shaken up with water in a bottle and used wet to record the outline of a stencil placed between the emulsion and the sun. Since the process was essentially a wet one, there are no existing "photograms", to use the modern term, dating from this time. In 1777, C. W. Scheele noticed that silver chloride was more quickly blackened by the violet and blue rays of the spectrum than by the others, and in a sense, this fundamental experiment is the basis of much modern work on photographic emulsion sensitivity and its correction to record the same sort of image as seen by the human eye. In the year 1800, Thomas Wedgwood made contact copies in silhouette form of leaves on leather sensitized with silver nitrate. Again, there was no fixing process used so that the results of these experiments have long since disappeared. The man most usually credited with the invention of photography was Nicephore Niepce who, in 1816, made photographs using a "camera" - that is, a dark chamber with an appropriate lens - to produce photographs on paper sensitized with silver chloride. These photographs were partially fixed using hypo and really constitute the first artistic realization of what we now cal I photography. In the year 1819, Sir John Herschel discovered that thiosulphates removed undeveloped silver halides and thus made the images produced on ·paper by the action of light permanent. This led H in 1826 to the second relevant experiment of Niepce who made a photograph from nature using a lens system and a pewter plate sensitized with bitumen. Niepce's camera of 1826 is interesting in that it contained a bellows for focussing the lens and an iris diaphragm for controlling the amount of light, although the degree of control is debatable since the exposure was eight hours! Recognizable artistic photography started in 1835 when L. J. M. Daguerre made direct photographs on silvered copper plates coated with a silver iodide. The latent image was developed by mercury vapour, a most obnoxious substance, and in 1837, it was found that the result could be fixed using a solution of common salt. Thus, the Daguerreotype was born. The second contender for the honour of invention of artistic photography was W. H. Fox Talbot who, also in 1835, produced photogenic drawings" on paper sensitized with silver chloride and fixed with potassium iodide. Fox Talbot also discovered that prolonged washing with water would dissolve out the undeveloped chloride and thus act as a fixative. The period 1820 to 1840 was one of vigorous scientific activity and readers should recollect the work of Michael Faraday who, between 1828 and 1832, discovered most of the practical applications of electro-magnetism, including the transformer, the motor, and the electric generator. The time was also an active one for microscopists, and in 1839, the Reverend J. B. Reade made the first photomicrographs using a solar microscope to record on paper sensitized with silver nitrate and developed with gallic acid. Fixing was achieved by immersion in sodium thiosul phate. The importance of the photographic process is indicated by the fact that in 1839, the French Government issued working instructions for the creation of Daguerreotypes, and in the same year, Sir John Herschel, son of Sir William mentioned earlier, first coined the word photography" from roots meaning writing with light. 11 11 �3. 1840 is an important date, since in this year, J. Petzval established the basic theory required to compute optical systems of photographic type. The Petzval portrait lens is still in use. In the same year, A. Wolcott opened the first photographic portrait studio in New York City. The Europeans had the art, but the Americans, as usual, made the money I 1844 - first book illustrated photographically 1844 was an important date in the history of photography since it was in that year that Fox Talbot published the first part of "The Pencil of Nature" which was the first book to be illustrated photographically. Copies of this book are still extant, but it is a very rare book, and if a copy ever came up for sale, it would fetch a very large sum of money. The birth of flash photography was not due to Harold Edgerton as is usually thought, but to Fox Talbot who, in 1851, made the first photographs of an object in rapid movement using an electric spark. In the year 1852, the same experimenter showed that gelatin was made insoluble when saturated with sodium biochromate and exposed to light. This led to the first practical process for half-tone printing. 'The technical processes of photography were in a state of rapid change. The Daguerreotype required special preparation for viewing. The later wet processes were messy in application and were replaced finally by dry processes using a transparent negative fol lowed by a positive. It was not until 1871 that R. L. Maddox made the first gelatin dry plates. These were extremely slow, although subsequently improved, both as to speed and to quality. With the coming of the gelatin emulsion, the chemists concentrated on finding reliable methods of development and Sir William Abney, of Photometer fame, discovered the virtues of hydroqwnone in 1880 and was soon followed by H. B. Berkeley who, in 1882, added sodium sulphite to the armoury of photographic developers. 1882 also marks the point of emergence of orthochromatic plates - that is, plates whose sensitivity resembled more that of the human eye than did the original emulsions which, as we mentioned earlier, displayed considerable sensitivity to blue and violet radiation but little to anything else. From this time on, the development of photography was rapid and the inventions came thick and fast. Significant dates are 1888 when the first Kodak roll film camera came on the market, 1891 when the physicist Lippmann produced the first interference colour photographs, and 1906 when Wratten and Wainwright produced the first panchromatic plates - that is, plates sensitive to all col ours. 1914 saw the first Kodak colour photographic process, but the real development of colour photography had to await the work of Mannes and Godowsky in 1935 when the Kodachrome process was developed. 1861 - colour! The last significant date was 1947 when Edwin Land produced the one-step photographic process now known as Polaroid. All of this work was, of course, in black and white or in some of the rather charming sepia and gold tones produced by the replacement of silver by such metals as gold and platinum, but in the year 1861, J. Clerk Maxwell demonstrated the first three-colour separation method for producing coloured images and thereby established the basis of modern colour photography. The work of Maxwel I was fol lowed quite quickly in 1868 by that of Ducos du Hauron who experimented with three-colour photography and discovered various methods of realizing it including that of subtractive colour synthesis. Along with the development of the chemistry of the photographic process, optical systems and cameras received a great deal of attention. The first cameras were simply boxes with a lens in front and a plate behind. Early lenses, which used a very small aperture, did not require focussing, in this respect they did not differ much from the box Brownies of the 1930's and the inexpensive plastic cameras of the present day! Because of the slow emulsions, however, it became necessary to develop lenses which would let in far more light. This led to two interesting scientific kinds of research: the first directed to the elimination �4. of the severe aberrations from which large aperture lenses suffered, and the second to the design of lenses to produce distortion-free images. The only important technical developments of the nineteenth century were the addition of bellows to enable the new and larger aperture lenses to be properly focussed and the introduction first of the Waterhouse diaphragm with its disc of circular stops, and second of the iris diaphragm as a means of controlling the amount of light falling on the film. As films or plates became faster, exposures became much shorter and this, in turn, led to the mechanical development of shutters which would work at high speed and at the same time give reproducible results. Many and various were the designs tried, ranging from pneumatic to spring-driven sets of blades, and of course, roller blind type apparatus, usually driven by springs, which was the prototype of the modern focal plane shutter. miniature, spy cameras The late nineteenth century produced a rash of spy cameras, smal I and unobtrusive devices which were the prototypes of the modern miniature cameras. These were designed to take pictures of one's friends in embarrassing situations, to say nothing of their use by the emerging race of scientific detectives typified by Mr. Sherlock Holmes. The first miniature cameras in the modern sense were the Ermanox used to great effect by the famous photographer, Dr. Salomon and, of course, the Leica, the grandfather of all modern miniature 35 mm. cameras. The explosion of photographic technology of the 1960's and the introduction of electronics, both for light metering and for shutter automation have produced a real revolution in the use of the camera. No longer does the photographer have to have any real skill. What he needs is artistic perception. The automation does the rest. CULTURE, POLITICS AND GEOGRAPHY: or Cymru Am Byth Is A Fine Slogan, But What Does It Mean? by Mr. Robert S. Dilley Lakehead University While there are almost as many definitions of geography as there are geographers, few would deny that one of the most basic concerns of the subject is with distributions: where things are, why they are there, and how they rel ate to other things. Such investigations can take nany forms: the distribution of crop-growing and its relationship with rainfall; the distribution of coal and its relationship with unemployment, and so on. In each case two (or more) phenomena are mapped, and attempts made to measure and explain any similarities in their distributions. For example, consider the relationship between minority cultural traits and minority political parties. In the case of Wales the historic national tongue is Welsh, a Celtic language with no recognizable relationship with English. It is found only in Wales and among a few expatriates, though Welsh-speakers tend to lose their lang1age quickly on emigration. About one-fifth of the population currently speaks Welsh (Map 1 ), tho·Jgh virtually all are bilingual in English (Welsh monoglots account for little over 1% of the t:>tal population). Welsh-speaking is strongest i1 the rural areas of the north and west; lovvest in the industrial south, along the English b0rder and in Pembrokeshire, "little England beyond Wales". Being exclusive to the Welsh it provides a strong focus for national cultural identity; even nonWelsh-speaki ng Welshmen delight in the average Englishman's inability to pronounce place-names such as Pwllheli, Llanllwchaiarn and Llanfihangel yng Ngwynfa. Welsh nationalism as a significant political force is a new phenomenon; after ye1rs of being the butt of jokes about lost deposits the Plaid Cymru (pronounced approximately ,iplide comeree", with the emphasis on "come") attained respectabi Iity when its President, Gwyn for Evans, was elected in a Carmarthen by-election in 1966. Last year's October election was their most successful (Map 2) when they gained 10% of the popular vote and three M.P.s; in Carmarthen (Gwyn for Evans again), Caern uvon and Merioneth. �5. The general relationship between Plaid Cymru and the Welsh language is apparent from the maps (for simplicity, data are grouped by counties: Glamorgan, for example, returns 17 M.P.s; Brecknock and Radnor share one between them). Correlating percentage Welsh-speaking with percentage vote for the Plaid Cymru m a county basis provides a coefficient of + 0.83, significant at the 0.1% level. This is an indication of a very strong positive relationship. Such relationships, of course, must not simply be pulled out of the statistical hat and held up for wonderment. In some cases high correlations may be due to chance; more often to the overriding influence of some third factor on both elements being studied. Before drawing maps or running correlations the researcher must have good reason to expect to find a relationship. In the case of Welsh and Welsh nationalism the connection is clear: the party has made great use of the language as a rallying-point or standard: although only a minority is fluent most Welshmen know at least a few words and have a sentimental attachment to the symbol of their difference from the saesneg (Saxon; i.e. Englishman). Appeals to hwyl (intensely sentimental Welsh emotionalism, seen at its quintessential best just after one of the regular Welsh rugby football defeats of the England side) are, more effective when couched in Welsh. Conversely, non-speakers of Welsh may become irritated by the noisy waving of the linguistic flag, and less inclined therefore to vote for the Plaid Cymru. The relationship, clearly, is not perfect. The percentage vote for the Plaid Cymru at the last election was only half the Welsh-speaking percentage, and it did not fol low the language distribution absolutely. People vote for a variety of reasons, and will not automatically support a party just because it is the only one to espouse their language. Many nationalistic Welsh-speakers on Anglesey voted for the Labour M. P. Cledwyn Hughes, a prominent and much-admired advocate of the Welsh cause. In the heavily Englishspeaking, coal-mining and steel-producing areas of Glamorgan and Monmouth the vote has traditionally been monolithically Labour: in 1966 the area returned 21 Labour M. P s and one Conservative. However, the failure of successive Labour governments to improve the South Wales economy sufficiently has led to a certain amount of protest voting. The rural areas have tended to go Tory (they now have 4 members). The miners would sooner vote for a Martian than a Conservative (at the last election Abertillery voted 76% Labour and Rhondda 77%), but an increasing number feel safe in registering their irritation by giving their vote to Plaid Cymru. Thus the Anglesey vote is rather lower than might be expected; that of the industrial south a little higher. If space permitted these residuals, or differences from the expected figures, could be mapped and more eas i Iy observed. At this level of study only crude approximations can be made. Greater accuracy would be obtained by breaking the counties down into their individual constituencies (smaller division is impossible, as British elections are not declared on a poll-by-poll basis: the ballots are taken to a central location and deliberately mixed before being counted). Similar studies could be made of other areas where linkages of cultural phenomena and political allegiance are suspected. It might be interesting, for example, to compare Francophone areas and votes for the Parti Quebecois. There would not, however, be any point in relating votes for the Scottish Nationalist Party to the Gaelic tongue. Very few Scots speak the language (little over 1%) and they are highly localized in the Western Highlands and Islands. The S. N. P. concentrates more on economic and governmental issues and has wider appeal than the culturallyoriented Plaid Cymru (the S. N. P. polled nearly 30% of the Scottish vote last year, overtaking the Tories). Thus Plaid Cymru sentiment is clearly linked with the Welsh language. It might seem advantageous for the party to foster this link, and to aim to collect the other half of the Welsh-speaking vote. However, this could be risky in the long term, as the Welsh-speaking percentage is shrinking and the Anglophone majority may be repelled. Plaid Cymru votes in largely English-speaking areas such as Pembroke (4.5%), Barry, Glamorgan (3.3%) and Monmouth ( 1.4%) suggest that "Cymru am byth" (Wales for ever) has less meaning there. Studies such as this can at least provide the basis from which political decisions must be made. �MAP 2, 1974 PLAID CYMRU VOTE AS A PERCENTAGE OF THOSE VOTING. MAP I, PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION OVER 3 YEARS OLD ABLE TO SPEAK WELSH. . :::: ~~:.: ::::::=~ CJ ITIIIID Ea [:?\:{{::j CJ 20-29 30-39 ~ - 40-49 ~ 50-59 ~ - 0-4 ,.:::i CJ5-9 60-69 ;;;; E3 V > < 1 10-14 15-19 -£%1 20- 24 mm 25-29 ................... 30-34 ;;;; 8i~ ✓ - Source, Census of Britain, 1971. Source 0 The Times, 12 October 1974 °' �7 MAP 3, COUNTIES OF WALES �8. THE ST TE y F by: Air Cadet L. Mathemaki (Ret'd) Director of the Div is ion of Theoretical War fa re 1: INTRODUCTION. With the increasing mathematization of the social and natural sciences, most math teachers find they must drastically modify and update their course contents, in order to maintain at least a semblance of relevance. Gone are the days when students would be content with only physical and geometrical applications of the calculus, for examplel Now most high school calculus courses must contain applications to economics, biology, sociology and psychology, even if they are of an extremely idealized nature. Thus, the following very simple application of calculus to warfare might appeal to a good student, although it may be difficult to persuade him/her that it is really of practical value. At the very least, the main result is both easy to obtain and completely unexpected two good qualities rarely occurring together! 2: A SHORT HISTORY OF WARFARE. We deal with battles between two opposing forces. , Battles in primitive times probably consisted of a lot of individual hand-to-hand fights; the essential point for us is that the weapons fists, clubs, spears - were not long range weapons: it was impossible to concentrate the power of many soldiers on one opponent. Thus if, for example, we had two such armies, one with 100 men and one with 200, we would expect - if the soldiers are equally profficient that the result would be annihilation of the first army and 100 survivors from the second. The battle could simply be fought by letting half the second army act as spectators, while everyone else is killed. Nowadays things are different and undoubtedly much improved. Long range weapons enable armies to concentrate their fire power and, as we shall see, this can lead to unexpected advantages. There are some pretty obvious ~xamples: perhaps the battle of Agincourt was the most spectacular - the long range weapons of the English (bows and arrows) annihilated the the larger French army, whose weapons were short range. E T TE Fl E P Nearer our own time, the use of field artillery in the Russo-Japanese war, and now, the anticipated use of inter-continental ballistic missiles, indicate how far we have come from clubs and swords. Interested history students might profitably analyse some modern battles using the concepts we will now introduce. ' 3: A MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR MODERN WARFARE. We consider two opposing forces, the red and the blue armies, of sizes r(t}, b(t), respectively, at any time t. We will measure time from the beginning of the battle, so r(0), b(O) are the initial sizes of the armies. Of course, we could measure the sizes, not in terms of soldiers, but in terms of battalion, ships, etc., whatever is convenient. We assume that each soldier (battalion, ship) in the red army is equally effective in warfare, and that he can concentrate his fire power in any way, so that, throughout the battle he kills R blue soldiers every minute. Similarly, each blue soldier kills B red soldiers every minute; R and B are fixed numbers. Consider what happens in a short time interval from t to t+h minutes during the battle. The number of red soldiers killed is, by the definition of r, -(r(t+h)-r(t) ). On the other hand, if the time interval is short, the size of the blue army hasn't changed much in this time, and thus is approximately b(t) its size at the beginning - so the number of red soldiers killed is b (t) • B • h by the definition of the kill rate B. Thus, for values of h near 0, r(t + h) -- r(t) % -b(t) . 8 . h so r(t+h)-r(t) % -b(t) . B h Since this approximation improves as h approaches 0, we have ER �9. dr dt= -b. B (Calculus!) Similarly, db = -r• R dt and so, after a bit of algebra b • B • db = r • R • dr dt dt If we integrate both sides with respect to time, we get the unexpected result: 'b2 B - r2 R is independant of time Let us2 cal I b 2 B the strength of the blue army and r . R the strength of the red army. We have shown that tne difference in strength is conI stant throughout the the battle. Examples : 1. Consider a battle between 10 machine gunners (the red army) and 100 infantrymen (the blue army), and assume the kill rate of the machine gunners is 16 times that of the infantrymen. Let us measure time so the rates are 16 and 1. Initially, the , strengths are: machine gunners= 16. 10 2 = 1600 infantrymen = 1 • ( 100 ) 7 = 10000 and so, at any time, b(t) 2 16r(t) 2 = 10,000 - 1,600 = 8,400 The battle will end when one side is vanquished - when b(t) or r(t) is 0. Clearly, b(t) will never be 0: b(t) 7 = 8,400 + 16r(t) 2 so, at the end, r(t) = 0 and b(t) =J8,400 = 91. Only nine infantrymen have been killed, and all 10 of the machine gunners die in spite of the fact that they are, individualy, 16 times more effective in killing! A rather surprising result. 2. The above example was rather an uneven contest - the machine gunners were quite overwhelmed. Let's consider a more equal match: 10 machine gunners against 60 infant- rymen. The infantry is the stronger, by 2000, so a battle would result in it winning, with 45 infantrymen left. But suppose the machine gunners use a bit of strategy, and manage to break the battle into a series of battles, in each one of which they all atack 20 infantrymen. The results are: (i) 10 mgs vs 20 inf. : 8 mgs survive (ii) 8 mgs vs 20 inf. : 3 mgs survive (iii) 6 mgs vs 20 inf. : 3 mgs survive The machine gunners have won! Thus we see that a bit of strategy can win against what, at first glance, appears to be overwhelming force. Of course, the enemy general has to be rather stupid to allow his army tn be picked off ·piecemeal, but this is what often occurs in practice. A small force is sent to divert a larger part of the enemy; their job is simply to pin down a lot of soldiers while their comrades defeat the small remainder. Then they keep regrouping until they win. A naval battle, during the days of sailing ships, would be a good example of this - in that no diversionary force is needed if the wind is right - the attacking admiral hits his opponents part way down the line and lets the wind carry off a portion of the enemy fleet. By the time it has been turned around to re-enter the fight, the next phase has started. Nelson used this ploy at Trafalgar; this has been analysed by Lankester in his classic paper [3]. We will give a slightly different interpretation. 4: THE BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR RERUN. Up to 1782, there was no 'naval strategy' - it was 'line up, and attack ship-to-ship'. But in 1782 the British admiral Rodney, probably by accident, broke through the enemy line and by concentrating on his centre and rear, won a victory. This prepared the military mind for Nelson's strategy at Trafalgar. It was known that Nelson would favour Rodney's strategy; the French admiral, Villeneuve, stated before the battle that "the British fleet will not be formed in a line-of-battle parallel to the combined (ie. the French and Spanish) fleet according to the usage of former days. Nelson will seek to break our line, envelop our rear, and overpower with groups of his ships as many as he can isolate and cut off. Why the French and Spanish admirals let Nelson dictate the strategy is a matter for military historians; the answer may lie in the fact that the French believed their �10. reverses at sea were due to the introduction of tactics, which one of their admirals had castigated as a "veil of timidity". Also, due to the British blockade, the French sailors at that time were so untrained they couldn't manoeuvre their ships - but they were more accurate at gunnery, so long-range warfare should have been congenial for them. At any rate, Nelson and his aides, Collingwood and Keats, planned the battle as follows: They assumed they would have 40 ships, and the enemy would have 46. The British fleet was to attack in 3 columns, as below. \ \\ wind . . . _ ,_ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _. . . ,_ _ _ _ 12 12 4 In fact, these tactics part of Nelson's fleet •convoy to Malta, and formed two lines; the great detai I in [ 1] . --►.,.,. 18 Combined fleet Assuming the wind carried the 18 ships out of the battle, and that it broke into 3 separate battles: 16 British vs 12 Combined 16 British vs 12 Combined 8 British vs 4 Combined, resulting in 27 British ships surviving, and then the final battle of 27 British against 18 Combined, the net result is that 20 British ships are left. If the usual 'line of battle' attack had been used, the combined fleet would have won, with 20 ships, and most of us would speak French. • were changed because had to accompany a in the battle he only battle is described in 5: MORE APPLICATIONS. It would be interesting to apply these ideas to modern battles, to see if the military strategists could have been using - perhaps in an intuitive way - the quantitative results we can get. A 'dictionary of battles' - there are quite a few in print, and they should be available in the reference section of most school libraries - is all that would be needed. There may be applications to other situations to; polymer chemistry and molecular biology might contain intersting applications. Also, the mathematics of the situation has not, to my knowledge, really been investigated. The Iength of battle can be found; the answer involves the hyperbolic functions. The strength of an army consisting of several different types of weapons is certainly not that given in [3] , and appears to depend on the opposition, but I have not found even an approximate explicit form for it. What is the size of an overwhelming force?, one that will win no matter what strategy is used. How can we find a best strategy? Other mathematical problems may suggest themselves; I would be glad to hear of them. REFERENCES: 1. Major General J. F. C. Fuller; The Decisive Battles of the Western World, Vol. 2, a Paladin paperback. 2. Major General B. P. Hughes, Firepower. Weapon Effectiveness on the battlefield 1630-1850, Arms and Armour Press. 3. F. W. Lancaster; Mathematic5, in Warfare; The World of Mathematics, Vol 4, Simon and Schuster. Synonyms Glycerol and gylcerine are used for the same compound which is a trihydric alcohol. Hence the former spelling with an -ol ending is preferred. Glycine is an amino acid (also known as aminoacetic acid) while glycinol (also called 2-aminoethanol, ethanolamine, monoethanolamine) lacks the carboxylic group. Xylene and xylol are also used synonymously but the compound is not an alcohol but a homologue of benzene. The first spelling is preferred. Glycol: common name given to ethylene glycol. t �11. ATHE Tl S by: Dr. C. C. Mutambirwa lakehead University The mathematical needs of t 1e Arts student have increased very much in recent years. This is particularly so for the student intending to major in any one or more of the social sciences, namely, Anthropology, Economics, Geography, Political Science, Psychology and Sociology. Unfortunately a large number of such students still enter college or university with limited mathematical preparation at the high school level. Most Arts-bound students drop out of the high school mathematics program because of real or imagined fears of mathematics as a hard subject. Others drop out because of the misconceptions (also held by several teachers) that high school mathematics is not essential to the Arts major. The lack of a significant change in this state of affairs seems to lie in the pure Science bias contained in most high school mathematics curricula which have failed to include explicitly material suitable for the needs of the Social 'Scientist. Lately, however, the growing importance of mathematics to the social sciences is being recognized. The Secondary Schools Statistics Project which was launched just over two years ago at the University of Western Ontario is one evidence of this recognition. Since then high school mathematics teachers have held related seminars designed to revise the high school curriculum (especially the statistics program) accordingly. The growing importance of mathematics to the social sciences has been demonstrated by the results arising from the study under the auspices of the project noted above. (See MacNeil, 1975, "The Social Scientists' View Of High School Mathematics", in Ontario Mathematics Gazette Vol. 13, No. 3, pp167-186). Using questionnaires, a poll (80% response) of social scientists in Ontario Universities was conducted to determine their opinions on mathematics curricula. Three sets of questions were asked. The first set asked the social scientists to indicate the value of eleven major mathematics topics to their undergraduate programs. The second set asked for the antici- T E TS ST E T pated future mathematical needs of the social sciences. The third requested them to rate the importance of various statistics and probability topks to the social sciences programs. The results of the statistical analyses of responses to the above sets of questions show that: I. Statistics, probabi I ity and the basic concepts of algebra are very useful to the secondary school mathematics program and hence also to the university social science programs. (Table 1 refers). 2. The relatively recent and modern aspects of the mathematics curriculum, which include computer science, probability, statistics and matrix algebra, will be of increasing importance to the social sciences. (see Table 2). 3. Data tabulation methods, measures of central tendency and of disperson should be part of the high school statistics course. In addition the high school student should be introduced to the elementary concepts on probability theory (probability measures, mathematical expectation, etc.), statistical inference, simple correlation and regression analysis, common experimental designs and associated analysis of variance, and some nonparametric tests. At the request of the survey some general comments concerning the secondary school mathematics program in particular, were appended to the questionnaires by the social scientists. The majority of the comments expressed the opinion that greater preparation of secondary school students in basic mathematics is very necessary and mathematics should be mandatory for all students. However, there are some reservations about the type and depth of statistics to be taught at high school level. It was generally felt that only the elementary topics in statistics could be taught with the intention of showing the secondary school student that statistics inter alia, is an integral part of most social science programs. Complete and detailed statistics courses could be left to the colleges and universities by which time the relevance of statistics to the social sciences becomes clearer and the subject can be easily integrated into a specific social science major. �12. Mathematics and statistics have become part and parcel of most social science programs. Several recent publications in the social sciences clearly show this to be the case. The growth of a scientific methodology in the social sciences, the development of computer technology and the magnitude and complexity of the real-world problems have all led to the adoption of quantitative approaches to problem solving. These developments require substantial mathematical skills in the arts student, just as much as the pure science student must develop some skills in the social sciences if his or her scientific endeavours are to have any relevance to the more immediate problems of the real world. ...., Scale: 1 of no use 2 of limited use 3 a useful topic 4 very useful 5 indispensible TOPIC Nn V) V) u ·e0 C: >, '; C. l'CS OQ.I •r-U 0) •r-Q.I .c: s.. 0 0 I.LI (.!J u Q.I ....,c: ,--,OU 0..V') ~ 0 0 .c: u >, V) a.. ol:S >, 0) 0 >,.0) 0 0 C. ,- 0 0 s.. •,-.C: 0...., 0 C: U') c:( TOPIC MATHEMATICS TOPIC NO. 0. "'s.. ,7l ,~ 0 c:,, '; u Q) ·~ +> Cu ..-Q) 2:~ ~ 0 '.g u !!' >, 0 os.. u 5.5l s - Q) C } ~ .... '= 1 Algebra. Bas 1c Concepts 0.455 0.500 0.300 0.133 2 Set theory. Basic concepts. 0.364 0.417 3 Euc 1 i dean geometry. -0.182 0.167 4 Analytic geometry. -0.100 0.000 0.111 5 Trigonometry -0.091 0.091 6 Differential & integra 1 cal cul us. 0.636 0.300 0.200 0.667 0.441 7 Matrix .algebra 0.636 0.500 0.667 0.750 0.661 8 Statistics 0.455 0.833 0.800 0.600 0.667 0.667 0.333 0.350 0.429 0.364 0.373 0.000 0.214 -0.091 0.070 0.000 0.000 0.035 0.100 0.143 0.000 0.052 0.273 Probability. 0.364 0.909 0.600 0.688 0.750 0.667 10 Computer progralTllli ng. 0.364 0.750 0.700 0.813 0.833 0.705 11 Actuaria 1 mathematics. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.083 9 -0.300 0.143 C: Q.I .p s.. l'CS 0 C. Q.I Q.I C: -0.,.. ..0 .- E ,- 0 c:( 0 MATHEMATICS TOPICS 1 Algebra. Basic concepts 2 Set theory. concepts. 3 Euclidean geometry 3.09 B.50 1.36 2.19 l.92 ~.37 4 Analytic geometry. 2. 91 2.92 1.45 2.25 2.42 2.40 5 Trigonometry. 6 Differential & 3.55 3.00 2 .18 2.56 2.58 g.]6 integral calculus. 7 Matrix algebra. 3.64 3.54 2.55 2.60 3.08 3.07 8 Statistics. 3.82 4.00 4.09 4.13 4.08 9 Probabi 1i ty 3.55 3.85 3.73 3.88 3.75 3.76 Table 2 Average responee to predicted future importance of mathematics topics for soaiaZ sdence diadptines. Ian B. MacNeil. 1975, "The Social Scientist's View of High School Mathematics", Ontario Mathematics Gazetter, Vol. 13, No. 3. p. 18 . 4.27 4.38 2.73 4.00 3.92 3.89 Basic 3.45 l3.46 2.55 3.13 3.00 (3.13 2.20 l3.45 1.18 l.94 l.92 2.15 L03 10 Computer program- 3.00 t3.54 3.00 3.25 3.50 B.27 ming. 11 Actuarial mathematics. 2.09 h .64 1.50 l.81 1.92 1.80 TABLE l Average response to importance of mathematias for soaial saience disaiplines. Source: "'u ~s:::: Ian B. MacNeil, 1975, "The Social Scientist's View of High School Mathematics", Ontario Mathematics Gazetter, Vol. 1 3 ~ , p.180. SOLUTION TO PREVIOUS PUZZLE: FLIERS, STINGERS AND BITERS �13. CHALLENGES TO FISHERY RESOURCE by: Professor W. Momot Lakehead University Although fisheries management has existed as a discrete discipline for only 40 years, there has been a greater impact on our fishery resources during this short time than in the past six thousand years of recorded history. While the burgeoning populations of the third world depend increasingly on fish as a source of protein, the fish supply is decreasing. The annual world fish catch has failed to increase for the second time since World War 11. Latest figures gathered by the F AO, the food and agricultural organization of the United Nations, show that the world catch of all species for 1972 was 65.6 million metric tons, down 4.1 million tons from the previous year. The need for protein has led to fierce international competition for the ocean's fishery resources. Many traditional fishing grounds are harvested so intensively that some of our most important commercial species have been thoroughly over-exploited. Much of the declining fish catch in the United States and Canada can be directly traced to increased competition from foreign fleets. This has occurred in the haddock fisheries of the north Atlantic. Despite establishment of the International Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries, which deals with the problems created when several nations exploit a common resource in international waters, satisfactory regulatory action has not been attained. As traditional fisheries decline the fishing nations of the world turn to other resources, and the same pattern of over-exploitation is repeated again and again. Even such oceanic fisheries as that for the Pacific salmons, Pacific halibut, and tropical tunas, which have yielded substantial catches over the past few decades, are being placed under more and more pressure. Another facet of this intense competition is the attempt by some coastal nations to limit access to their offshore resources by extending their coastal jurisdiction to the edge of the continental shelf or to some other fixed point usually given as 200 miles offshore or 200 meters in depth. This is true not only of underdeveloped countries but also of traditional fishing nations such as Iceland, whose entire ANAGE ENT economy is dependent on its offshore cod fishery. Canada has also threatened similar action. Several international incidents have been directly tied to the problem of sharing a fisheries resource or to disputes over conflicting uses of a resource within a given area, for example, the conflict between United States lobster fishermen and Russian trawlers off the New England coast. In a few cases a fishery is regulated by treaty. This is true for the Pacific salmon which is shared by the United States, Canada and Japan. However, si nee the treaty only governs these three nations, what happens when other countries not regulated by any agreements attempt to share this resource? The problems resulting from international conflicts over marine fish resources are among the most challenging and complex we can define for the renewable resource manager. Because of their need for protein, aquaculture of food fishes constitutes an important resource for the underdeveloped nations of the world. However, many of these countries already have an extensive development of these resources. As poorly developed nations attempt to raise their standard of living, they will put greater and greater demands on protein sources such as grain crops, fish meal and even beef cattle. Thus, they will come into direct competition with more affluent countries. For European nations which depend on imports of meat or high protein feeds to raise beef or dairy cattle such competition will become a serious problem. Though Canada and the United States produce enough food for their own use, how can they morally disregard the needs of four-fifths of humanity? In addition, they are caught up in the international balance-ofpayments problem and numerous treaty obi igations. Thus, the fisheries resources of the world remain unalterably tied to questions of moral, political, and social values. An even greater problem facing freshwater and coastal estuarine resources is the continuous degradation of the environment and the concomittant changes in the fish populations. Although we do not directly consider the well documented problem of pollution and its effects on aquatic organisms, it is certainly important in many of our fisheries. It has had a direct bearing on the development of certain �14. fisheries resources such as the Great Lakes fisheries, notably in Lakes Ontario and Erie. However certain fisheries in the upper Great Lakes have also been affected. In view of these serious problems, the need for recreation may seem of diminished importance. Yet it continues to dominate the inland freshwater fisheries of the affluent western world. In island waters, sport and commercial fisheries are often in direct competition for a common resource and even when they compete for different resources within a commonly shared area, conflicts are just as serious. The Great Lakes fisheries constitute an outstanding example of this sort of conflict. Regulation of these fisheries is made even more complex since jurisdiction is both international and interstate. Inland sport fisheries are also faced with a myriad of other problems. The development of an _indu~trialized, urban society with a seemingly insatiable demand for recreational space has created a paradoxical situation; the masses of modern man are densely concentrated while the resources are usually located at great distances from these population centres. However, with improvements in transportation and the general affluence of the public even once remote resource bases are hard put to produce satisfactory recreational experiences. Fishery managers are thus faced with the task of providing satisfactory. yields and dealing with the incremental and continuous degradation of existing resources. Certain resources such as streams continue to be degraded at a rate, which if continued, will soon make them a rarity as a fishery resource. The construction of impoundments have created new fishery resources, yet their management remains quite primitive. Of immediate concern is the loss of existing fishable waters near urban centers. The increasing demand for such waters continues to tax the most imaginative and creative minds in the field of fisheries administration. Finally, where demand is greater than supply, certain special interst groups usually bring pressure on administrators to propose legislation favouring their use of the resource. This tends to exclude the less organized, more general sportsman. Attempts to restrict both the harvest and the use of a resource to special interest groups continues to be one of the most challenging problems in sport fishery management. Coastal marine fisheries are faced with many of the same problems as inland freshwater fisheries. In addition to the pollution of the environment, there is an increasing demand for salt water based recreation plus conflicts over the commercial and/or sport use of many marine fish and shellfish. Thus, the cha I lenges facing the fishery manager are as complex, formidable and numerous as any in the field of renewable natural resources. They include the major problems confronting man today: over-population of the third world, the stark reality of protein starvation for four-fifths of humanity, insidious and incremental destruction of the world's natural resources at a time of resource scarcity, increasing competition between wealthy and developing nations for the resources that remain and the psychological impact of coping with a technological world at a time when the safety valve provided by outdoor space is vanishing or being altered. Even though advances in science and technology have been the cause of many of these problems, they can also be used to formulate effective solutions. However, the proper application of these solutions will also depend on the social and political wisdom of mankind. We are on the verge of spectacular breakthroughs in the field of ecosystem manage- ment, but man's greatest achievement will be in finding the social and political answers to make the "wise" use of his renewable natural resources a reality for succeeding generations. I. and 11/11/75 �15. TH RI by L. Mathemaki, Professor of Mathematical Marriage Counselling Most mathematics has its roots in very practical problems and, for most of us, one very practical problem we have all encountered ·- and some of us have solved - is: "how many acquaintances must one have in order to get married without undue competition?". I will pose this problem in a typical idealized way: we will consider a set B of boys, and set G of girls; each boy wishes to marry an acquaintance from G; perhaps a boy will not know all the girls in G. Bigamy will not be allowed, and we wish to attain the typical male-chauvinist goal that all the boys get married, without regard for left-over girls. Let's consider an example: we have four boys, improbably named I, 2, 3, and 4. Each boy knows some girls, any one of whom he would not mind marrying. Let us call the girls A, B, C, D, and suppose the acquaintances are Boy 1 2 3 4 His acquaintances A A,B B,C A,C,D, If all the boys are to be married, 1 must marry A, so 2 must marry B, 3 must marry C, and 4 must marry D. In this case, all the boys can get married, and in fact there is only one possible way they can pair off. Another example: suppose the 'acquaintance table' is: Boy His acquaintances 1 2 3 4 A,B A,B A,B A,B,C,D, In this case marriage is impossible: the boys I, 2, 3, only have two girls to choose from. Thus we see that sometimes marriage is possible and sometimes it isn't. The marriage problem is simply to determine conditions which will guarantee the possibility of marriage. To solve the problem, let's return to the general situation - the two sets B,G - and suppose all the boys can be married off. Consider any set C of boys from B (that is, consider any subset C of B) and denote by F (C) the set of those girls from G each of whom knows a boy in C. For instance, in our first example we have F(3) = (B,C); F(1,2) = (A,B), F(2,3,4) = (A,B,C,D,), and so on. We have assumed ail the boys can be married off; thus no matter what C is, F (C) must contain the (potential) wives of the boys in C, and since different boys have different wives (the nobigamy condition), there are at least as many girls in F(C) as there are boys in C. So we have the assertion: if marriage is possible then, for each C ~ B, F(C) contains at least as many elements as C. THE SURPRISING THING IS: the converse of our assertion is also true. Given any sets B,G of boys and girls, if F(C) contains at least as many girls as there are boys in C, for every Cs 3, then al I the boys can be married off. The proof of this is very tricky indeed - it proceeds by induction on the number of boys in B. It would be a worthwhile problem for a good grade 13 student to attempt; at least it illustrates that induction is not just a turn-the-crank method involving the summation of finite series! Of course, such a proof only works for a finite number of boys, so it then is natural to ask: what happens if B contains an infinite number of boys? Consider an example: ca I the boys 1,2,3,4, .... the girls 1*,2*,3*,4*, .... and suppose the acquaintances are: 1. knows all the girls 2. only knows 1 * 3. only knows 2* 4. only knows 3* and, generally, if n > 1, n only knows (n-1) *. Every set C of boys knows as many girls as there are boys in C; in fact, if 1 is in C, then F(C) contains all the girls. But marriage is impossible - 2 must marry 1*, 3 must marry 2*, . . . leaving no one for that extremely popular boy 1. �16. Thus the condition that worked for the finite situation won't work in this case; the next step would be to get some compromise. It turns out that if the condition holds, and each boy only knows a finite number of girls, then marriage is possible. The proof of this seems to require some very profound mathematics indeed; it was first proved in 1949, and subsequent generalizations now constitute a fairly substantial body of knowledge "the theory of transverals and representative sets". TWO MORE PROBLEMS: (1) The problem of the monks: this was first posed by Balzac. We have two sets, a set M of monks, and a set A of non-monks; each monk has acquaintances in A, and he wishes to establish a 'harem' consisting of his acquaintances, of a particular size, and disjoint from the other harems. Under what conditions can he do this? It turns out that this is just a disguised marriage problem: replace each monk by as many boys as he wants members in his harem, and seek conventional marriages. (2) The friendship problem: this appears unrelated to the marriage problem We consider a party at which each pair of persons has a common acquaintance (including the possibility that a pair know each other). Then, someone at that party knows everyone! The only proof I know of is pretty complicated - in fact, it turns the problem into a problem in a peculiar geometry. Can anyone furnish a nice neat elementary proof? True or False? Carotid: one of the two great arteries that carry blood to the head. The name is derived from karoo (= stupefy), compression of the carotid arteries being thought to produce stupefication. Carotene: one of the carotenoid pigments common in plants (and particularily abundant in carrots). True or False? Ammeter: a current-measuring device. Most modern ammeters are of the moving coil type developed during the 19th century. The current to be measured is passed through a rectangular coi I of many turns of wire pivoted between two jewelled bearings in a magnetic field. The interaction between the current and the magnetic field exerts a torque which turns the coil against a spring. The angle through which the coil rotates is then a measure of the current in the wire. The sensitivity of the instrument is set by the strength of the magnetic field, the construction of the coi I (size of wire, number of turns and area of coil) and by the strength of the restoring spring. An external circuit can easily be used to reduce the sensitivity of a meter as can be seen in the diagram:- In this circuit, only the fraction R ( R + r) of the current I, flows through the ammeter, A. No external circuit, however, can be used to increase the sensitivity. Carob: leguminous evergreen Mediterranian tree (and its pod and seeds). The large red pods have been used for food for animal and man since prehistoric times. It is believed that it may have been the "locust" eaten by John the Baptist in the wilderness. The seeds are reputed to be extremely uniform in size and weight and to have been used as weight standards. They are believed to be the origin of the carat which is now the measure of weight for precious metals and jewels. �17. HAT IS TOPO OGY? by:S. A. Naimpally, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. As with any subject it is quite difficult to give a precise definition of Topology. Topology means different things to different people but broadly speaking it deals with continuity. The terms continuous, continuity etc. are used often in day-to-day language, and the purpose of this little article is to explain how they are made precise in Mathematics. Mathematicians have been struggling for centuries to give a precise meaning of continuity, and although a satisfactory definition was given in the middle of the nineteenth century by Weierstrass and Heine, a very simple approach was first suggested by the great Hungarian mathematician F. Riesz in 1908. We will use Riesz's approach via the concept of nearness which is one of the most important concepts in the whole of mathematics. The beauty of nearness is that it is simultaneously simple and rigorous. Let us take a simple example. Suppose Paul is a friend of the Russel family. If Paul continues to be a friend, then we say that the friendship is smooth or continuous. If there is a quarrel between Paul and the Russels, we say that the friendship is broken or discontinuous. It is easy to think of many such examples, but rather than do that, we will pursue only a few and arrive at a precise definition of continuity. The statement "Paul is a friend of the Russels" can be simply explained by "Paul is near the Russel family". Here nearness is an abstraction of friendship but it could also represent many other relations. For instance, a phrase which we frequently use in day-to-day language, we may say that "Paul is near the Russel family" provided that Paul lives in their neighbourhood, or Paul is related to the Russel family (Perhaps as an uncle or grandfather). Thus we have the concept of nearness between ' • a person and a family. A question naturally arises as to what properties this nearness relation satisfies? Some of the obvious ones are (i) each member of the Russel family is near the Russel family (we are, of course, considering an ideal family which has no delinquents!), {ii) No person can be near a non-existent family, etc. However, a subtle difference exists between these day-today examples and the mathematical concept of nearness. Whereas it is possible in life for a person to be neither near nor far (opposite of near), we require our mathematical concept to avoid this possibility. As time passes we all change or we are all transformed. If a person who is near a family remains near we say that this transformation is continuous and, in the contrary case, we say that it is discontinuous. This idea is very basic and is at the root of the concept of limit in Calculus. In Topology one considers "higher" types of nearness too. For example we may say that the Russel family is near the Hardy family, if as it happens so frequently, they are introduced to each other by a common friend or a girl from one family marries a boy from another. This nearness between two families is called proximity, and interestingly enough, even in Mathematics the two most important proximities arise in completely analogous ways. One then considers proximal continuity which is concerned with the preservation of proximity. Finally we have the concept of nearness for several families. For example, several families may be near because they have a common ancestor or they have a common cause and get together for a picnic. Although these ideas are simple, they are at the basis of Calculus, Analysis and a big chunk of Modern Mathematics. They have found applications in Mathematical Biology, Psychology, Econometrics, Physiology of the Brain etc. For further details and references, the interested readers are referred to the following: (1) S.A. Naimpally and 8.0. Warrack, Proximity Spaces, Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics No. 59, Cambridge University Press, U.K. (1970). (2) S.A. Naimpally, Proximity Approach to General Topology, Lecture Notes, Lakehead University (1973). (3) P. Cameron, J.G. Hocking and S.A. Naimpally, NEARNESS; a better approach to continuity and limits, Lecture Notes, Lakehead University (1973). �18. IN UCTIVE JUSTIFICATI N bv: Gunars Tomsons Lakehead University The analysis of scientific reasoning by many able investigators has resulted in the acknowledgement of induction as being a legitimate and indispensable process of framing general hypotheses. This process, according to the analysis consists of formulating a general hypothesis on the basis of observed instances. Thus from the observed mortality of humans one infers the the mortality of any member of any mankind. Since the future seems so open and uncertain, and since a radical change in the constitution of the universe cannot be excluded BS a possibility, it has been thought at times that a justification is needed for a procedure of science that purports to produce hypotheses and laws of nature on the basis of the limited evidence of the senses. One sort of justification that has appeared to be the most promising method of justifying induction is the so-called inductive justification of induction. According to this method one is justified in using induction because observed instances of inductive reasoning have turned out to be reliable. There is certainly some attractiveness in a proposal to justify induction on empirical grounds. It seems that if we can make what we think to be legitimate inferences based on past experiences when we deal with the objects of science, then we should be able to learn from past experiences and make legitimate generalizations even when the objects have a different nature, i.e., when the objects are inductive arguments. However, at first sight there appear to be also good reasons against an inductive justification of induction, especially if we formulate the problem in terms of inductive rules. The justification of induction is then seen as a justification of a rule that permits generalization. Hence, if we want to justify our use of the rule ·through inductive procedures, we seem to be using in our justification a rule the general use of which we are trying to justify. There seems to be something illogical about a procedure of this sort. Nevertheless, Max Black, a present day philosopher interested in inductive logic has argued that inductive justification of induction is possible. 1 Hence I want to present the model for inductive justification F INDU TION of induction and Black's reasons for his position. I shall then show that Black's position is not tenable. Black conceives of the inductive justification of induction in terms of a justification of the inductive rule governing one type of inductive argument. The rule whose justification he seeks is the rule permitting the following argument: Most of the examined A's have been B's, 1 The next A will be B. Observation of the repeated application of the rule r 1, prompts us, according to Black, to produce an argument of the following form: r has usually been successful. , r will be successful in the next instance. 1 An argument. of this sort is called a selfsupporting argument, because the rule r 1, is used in the argument to establish that the next instance of the use of the rule will be successful. The meaning of 'the next instance' in the conclusion has not been made explicit, but Black's examples indicate that by 'the next instance' he means the use of the rule in a non-self- supporting argument. Arguments of the above kind have at times been called second-level arguments, because they refer to arguments whose referents are found in the non-linguistic world. One could, of course, construct second- or third-level arguments; but in the case under consideration we have been presented with only a second-level argument. One may not assume, though, that the rules used in second-level arguments must differ from the first-level arguments merely in virtue of the fact that second-level arguments try to establish facts about the first-level arguments. Moreover, I think that it would be absurd to claim that the inductive r 1 differs in character depending on whether it is employed in firstor second-level arguments. Arguments of the self-supporting kind have been criticized on the grounds that they are circular, i.e., that their premises contain the conclusion, if only as a presupposition or a suppressed premise. Black has provided us with a seemingly decisive argument against the view that these arguments have a suppressed premise asserting the general reliability of the rule r 1 7- �19. He has argued that the argument could no1 have a suppressed premise of this kind because by repeating the conclusion in the premises we no longer have an inductive argument. We have a technically sound argument which is of no use to us because it is circular. But only deductive arguments can be circular. Hence, according to Black, an attack of this sort on the inductive justification of induction cannot but fail. This appears to be a victory over those who allege that inductive justification of induction is circular in the logico-technical sense. However, I am not quite convinced. The attack by Black succeeds only if his opponent is willing to grant that the argument is in fact inductive. But need he grant this? It seems to me that Black's opponent could say that the justification of induction fails because the argument is circular and hence also deductive. On this view, Black only believes that he has provided an inductive argument, whereas in fact he had the suppressed premise that enumerative induction is effective. In other words, he has assumed that which he wants to prove inductively. And if one wants to prove what he assumes to be true in the premises, he has a circular argument whether he intends to use deductive or inductive procedures for proving whatever he intends to prove. From the point of justification of a belief that rests on an inference it certain! y is presupposed that the belief is wel I supported, and in order for a belief to be well supported we must have a reliable rule of inference as wel I as good evidence. Thus the rel iabi I ity of the rule is presupposed. It is true, I think, that we may not be conscious of the belief that our rule is reliable. However, from the point of view of justification of beliefs we have to take into account beliefs that we are not aware of in our day-to-day arguments, if they are relevant to our epistemological order of beliefs. I conclude that Black has not succeeded in showing that the inductive justification of induction is not circular, and I have already indicated that one has good reasons for claiming that it is circular. Black has argued that self-supporting arguments are not circular also on the grounds that the argument succeeds in raising the reliability of the rule. I want to show, nevertheless, that this argument is equally unsuccessful, and I will first reproduce Black's example of a self-supporting argument: (a) In most instances of the use of R in arguments with true premises examined in a wide variety of conditions, R has been successful Hence (probably): In the next instance to be encountered of the use of R in an argument with a 3 true premise, R will be successful. 'R' stands for the following rule: To argue from "most instances of A's examined in a wide variety of conditions have been B" to (probably) 77he next A to be encountered will be 8" Black contends that the argument (a) supports rule R by raising the reliability of the rule and hence the subsequent first-level arguments using the rule. The situation can be presented in the following schematic way using these abbreviations: 'a' will represent first-level inductive arguments before the use of the self-supporting argument. 'A' will represent supporting argument the self- 'b' will represent a first-level argument after the use of the self-supporting argument 'A' 'r ' is the inductive rule used in a arguments a 'rb' is the same argument b rule used in 'r ' is the rule used in the sefr-supporting argument The sequence below represents the temporal order of the arguments and the abbreviated argument A is presented directly below the sequence: �20. a1, a2, a3 , ............ ,an, A,b r a was successful A: ------------r A r b will be successful According to Black argument A establishes that is more reliable than r , but I do not see tRat this has to be the ca;e, since we do not know much about the reliability of r A. Black has no reason to assume that his second-level induction will perform as expected since in proving the conclusion we have assumed that r A will perform satisfactorily; we certainly have no inductive evidence in support of the reliability of r A. Some arguments are in order also with respect to Black's concept of the degree of reliability of the rule. Black conceives of the strengthening of rules and arguments as follows: r successes differs from rule to rule. But why should an inductive rule increase or decrease in reliability depending on the ratio of past successes? Our confidence may perhaps increase if we see the rule succeed, but to say that our confidence is increasing is not to say that the reliability of the rule is increased. I conclude that Black's attempts to provide inductive justification of induction have not succeeded. Moreover, I have supplied reasons which show that inductive justification of induction is implausible. 1. Let us assume that the following argument b using the rule r has the strength 4/5 or 8/10: Argument b 4/5 of examined A's are B's Next A will be B Given appropriate observational evidence we can construct a self-supporting argument: Argument A 9/10 of examined arguments using rule r were successfu I Next use of r will be successful This argument entitles us to say that the degree of strength of the ruler b is 9/10. Hence we should increase the strength of the argument b to 9/10. I already indicated why I do not think that Black has shown that the reliability of the rule would be increased, but Black has not really explained why we are entitled to speak about degrees of reliability of the rule. It may be plausible to talk about degrees of strength of an argument as a function of the amount of evidence available. However, is it plausible to say that rules have varying degrees of reliability? Of course, three different rules could conceivably have distinct degrees of reliability, if we should find that the percentage of past M. Black's writing on inductive logic and critical discussions of them can be found in the following works. M. Black, "The Justification of Induction", Language and Philosophy, ( Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1949), pp. 59-88; "The Inductive Support of Inductive Rules", Problems of Analysis, (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1954), pp. 191-208; W.C. Salmon, "Should We attempt to Justify ·induction?", Philosophical Studies, VIII (1957), pp. 33-48; M. Black, "SelfSupporting Inductive Arguments", Journal of Philosophy, LV (1958), pp. 718-725, or pp. 209-218; P. Achinstein, "The Circularity of a Self-Supporting Argument", Analysis, XXII {1961-62), pp. 138-144; M. Clack, "Self-Supporting and Circularity: A Reply to Mr. Achinstein", Analysis, XXI 11 ( 1962-63), pp. 43-44; P. Achinstein, "Circularity and Induction", Analysis, XXI 11 (1962-63), pp. 123-127; H. Kyburg, "recent Work in Inductive Logic", American Philosophical Quarterly, I (1964), pp. 1-39; M. Black, "the Raison d'Etre of Inductive Argument", British Journal for the PhilScience, XVII (1966), pp. also in Margins of Precision (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1970); "The Justification of Induction", Philosophy of Science Today, S. Morgenbesser (ed.) (New York: Basic Books, 1967); "Self-Supporting Inductive Arguments", Models and Metaphors, pp. 210. osophy of 177-204; 2. 3. M. Black, 199-200. Problems of Analysis, pp. M. Black, "Self-Supporting Inductive Arguments",Models and Metaphors, p. 210. �21. L ICS 010-0 by: Dr. N.A. Weir, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay One consequence of the increased standards of living experienced by most industrial countries is the rapid increase in the volume of solid waste. Wrapping of foods to reduce contamination and prevent deterioration has brought many social benefits, which at present tend to outweigh the disadvantages of having to dispose of the packaging materials after use. Plastics are also replacing conventional containers, like glass and ceramics to an increasing extent. One needs only to look around the shelves of a supermarket to see polyethylene detergent and bleach containers, polyvinylchloride (P.V.C) shampoo and edible oil containers and polystyrene beverage cups. The advantages of these materials are obvious ease and cheapness of formation of variously shaped containers, favourable mechanical properties (non-brittle) and their light weights. However, the steadily increasing proportion of plastic wrapping materials and non-returnable plastic containers in domestic and industrial wastes is now causing major disposal problems in many parts of the world. A recent survey shows that three polymers account for 90% of municipal plastic waste. These are: polyethylene (38%), (31%), and polystyrene (21 %) ; the remaining 10% is composed of varying amounts of polypropylene, polyesters, polyvinylidene chloride, and cellulose acetates and butyrates. Unlike cellulosic packaging materials, like paper, the plastics mentioned above are not bio-degradable (i.e. capable of being broken down, ultimately to CO2 and H 20, by microorganisms), hence they tend to be very persistent in the environment. Lack of biodegradability can be attributed to three typical characteristics of the polymers most used in packaging. ( 1) The polymers are largely hydrophobic, and hence wettability by polar molecules, like water, a prerequisite for many biological reactions, is extremely low. (2) Permeabilities of these polymers to gases like oxygen are very low, and thus the efficiencies of many bio-processes are greatly impaired. (3) Molecular weights of these materials must be high to give them adequate mechanical strength. However, micro-organisms tend to attack at the of large molecules, and since the number of these ends is inversely proportional to the molecular· weight, it follows that the rate of attack on a polyethylene molecule which might be used in packaging (Molecular weight 120,000) will be very low. It .is ironic that the factors which determine the usefulness of these polymers in packaging are precisely the factors which lead to their persistence in the environment. Some typical biodegradability figures, measured on a growth rating scale of 1 to 10, are summarized below. Compound Molecular weight polyethylene polyethylene polyethylene polyethylene Growth Rating 129,000 52,500 13,800 1,350 0 0 1 2 polystyrene polystyrene 87,000 2,100 0 0 polyvinyl chloride 52,000 0 polypropylene 27,000 0 170 5 dodecane (C12H25) The importance of molecular weight can be seen by comparing the various polyethylenes and the chemically similar, non-poymeric molecule dodecane. The above polymers may be rendered bio-degradable, by modification of their hydrophobicities, their permeabilities and by decreasing their molecular wights. This can be achieved simply by exposing photo-degradable forms of these polymers to natural sunlight, or by adding suitable sensitizers to them, the sensitizers also absorbing sunlight, and initiating polymer degradation. It is convenient to discuss the two methods separate I y. �22. Ketone Polymers After two decades of research on the prevention of sunlight degradation of polymers, scientists are applying their results to the design of polymers which will readily undergo sunlight degradation. Chemically, the reactions which lead to the failure of the polypropylene webbing used on lawn chairs, are very similar to these which are involved in the disposal of photo-degradable polypropylene, and in both cases ketonic (or carbonyl) compounds play a critical role. When the carbonyl group, C = 0, absorbs ultra-violet radiation of wavelength around 300 nm, (1nm = 10 - 7 cm) - and natural sunlight contains a small ultra-violet component with wavelengths extending to around 295nm-one of the non-bonding (localized) electrons on the oxygen atom is promoted into an anti-bonding n* - molecular orbital, which results in the delocalization of the electron over the C and O atoms. Such a promotion is referred to as an n >- :r * transition (i.e. transition from an n-type to an anti bonding rr* molecular orbital) and the excited molecule so produced can react by undergoing bond fission adjacent to the C = 0 group. Two distinct processes are possible, and these occur in both polymers and in small molecules. 0 II CH 2 C / "'cH2 / "-. CH2 VCH2 A and it can be seen that both Reactions I and 11 will result in scission of the chain. To make polyethylene photo-degradable, it is necessary to introduce only one ketonic group per thirty carbon atoms in the chain; the fragments produced by photo-fission are potentially biodegradable. Photo-degradable polystyrene and polypropylene are now available commercially (know as "Ecolyte S" and "P" respectively). Ketonic groups are incorporated into these molecules by copolymerization of small amounts of phenyl vinyl ketone. . 0 II CH 2==CH-C-@ The resulting copolymers have the following structures, the ketone groups occuring at random in the chains, e.g. with styrene, CH 3 I C=O /' I " ~ KETOPOLYMER_ ~ II ~ + CH3-C==O RADICALS A+ OLEFJ!IL CH I 3 C=O ~ KETONE Reaction I (better known as the Norrish Type 1 process) results in the formation of two free radicals. A free radical is a species which contains an unpaired electron and which is formed by the homolytic fission of a covalent bond. Reaction 11 ( Norri sh Type 11) involves an intramolecular rearrangement which is accompanied by fission of the molecule if'1to another ketonic compound and an olefin. It can be seen that if a ketonic group is introduced into a polymer chain, exposure to ultra-violet radiation will result in scission of the main chain, ( Reaction 11) and this reaction is employed in one type of photo-degradable polymer. Photo-degradable polyethylene has the structure: Lifetimes of these polymers can be controlled by varying the phenyl vinyl ketone concentration in the copolymers. "Ecolyte S" and "P" were developed by Dr. J.E. Guillet and his co-workers at the University of Toronto. It should be emphasized that in all of the above examples, the physical properties of the photo-degradable polymers are indistinguishable (except for ultra-violet absorption characteristics) from those of the pure homopolymers. (2) Sensitized Photo-degradation An alternative approach to photo-degradable plastics has been made by Dr. G. Scott at the University of Aston, England, and this employs a combination of photo-oxidation and subsequent photo-degredation. Free radicals, like those formed in Reaction I, being electrondeficient species react readily with molecular 1 oxygen in the air-the oxygen molecule exists in a triplet state - to produce peroxy radicals �23. which in turn abstract hydrogen atoms to produce a hydroperoxide and a new radical. The hydroperoxide is a key intermediate, since it absorbs the ultra-violet component of the sunlight, leading to photo-fission of the bonds adjacent to the peroxide (-0-0-) group. The new radicals framed can continue the oxidation process, and a chain reaction can develop. Photo-oxidation of a polymer is illustrated by the following reaction sequence, which incidentally, is the same sequence that leads to the deterioration of the useful properties of polypropylene on exposure to sunlight. RH - R POLYMER CH 2 0 2 -R0 2 - - . RADICAL 0-0·H CH 2 "-CH/ R0 2 H PEl'l_~QE The process is summarized by the following scheme: (MXn is the initiator) MXnuv_X• 0 2-X02• X0 2 • + RH -X0 2 H + R• R•+0 2 ► R0 2 • -R0 2 H (Peroxide) 0·0 H I CH2" /CH 2 ,, uv 'CH _ ,, CH 2 , ~H +HO•+CH 2 /'v 0 Addition of smal I amounts of these dithiocarbamate complexes to polyethylene polypropylene and polystyrene render the polymer photo-degradable, and their lifetimes can be controlled by variation of the concentration of photo-initiator. The iron complex, 0 . UV CH 2 LIGHT CH +HO•+CH 2 /'v' -~R_Q_~!fil:.. It can be seen that photolysis of the hydroperoxide will lead to chain scission, and ultimately to destruction of the polymer. One advantage of this system is that the oxidation reactions do not require continuous illumination; hydroperoxides can be formed in the dark, and subsequently decomposed on exposure to sunlight. One disadvantage of the system illustrated above is that the initial production of free radical centers on the polymer is intrinsically very slow, and thus photo-oxidation as such, is not a practical system for photo-disposable plastics. Scott discovered, largely by accident, that initiation of the photo-oxidation could readily be accomplished by adding suitable substances to the polymer. The compounds found most useful in this regard are the dithicarbamate complexes of transition metals (M). M S-C-N [ II s /C2H5] "'-c 2 H5 n is particulary attractive as a photo-activator for degradation of plastics used in the food-stuffs inqustry sine~ it is non-toxic. Yet another group of photo-initiators has been developed by scientists at the National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. These compounds are aromatic ketones like benzophenone, which absorb 0 II CH 3 - C - @ ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight spectrum to produce excited triplet molecules by n~* transitions. ( In the triplet state the electrons in the n* and n-type molecular orbitals have parallel spins). The triplets have sufficiently long lifetimes to undergo hydrogen abstraction reactions with the polymers, again forming radical centers on the chains, as follows: ( n = 2 or 3 ) Used in high concentrations these molecules act as photo-stabilizers (molecules added to inhibit photo-degradation), but become photoinitiators at low concentrations ( <1%). Initiation is brought about as follows. On exposure to sunlight the photo-initiator is decomposed into free radicals, which react with oxygen in the air to form peroxy radicals, which in turn abstract hydrogen from the polymer chains forming radical centers. The polymeric radicals then undergo oxidation. f r ~ 1· CH3-C-Ph ~ LCH3-C-Phj ~ • 0-H [ CH3-C-R~ -+-RH-CH3-bH-Rh + R• R• + 02-R02 • --R02 H The polymer is then oxidized and the chains broken by exposure of the hydroperoxides to sunlight. �24. THE CO by: Mr. 8. Spenceley, Lakehead University 0 ND ICR OPE the distance between the focal points. From the following simple diagram it is clear that It scarcely needs to be said that the compound microscope is widely used in the teaching of biology, but whether most students have a sufficient understanding of the opera- LENS 1 LENS 2 tion of the microscope is debatable. The purpose of this series of articles is to improve this understanding and to enable students to get more use out of their instruments. One of the important characteristics of an instrument for examining small objects is its magnification. There is a certain amount of arbitrariness about the definitions of magnification. The angular magnification, which is the When the last two equations are combined a type we are concerned with here, is usually simple expression for the effective focal length defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by results:- f=-f1f2 the object at the distance of most distinct 'x, vision to the angle subtended by the object The point of all this is that although it is seen through the instrument. A value of 25 difficult to make a single short-focal-length lens ems is usually taken as the average distance of we can get the same effect by using two most distinct vision, although there is a great moderately 'short' lenses separated by a reladeal of variation in this from one person to tively large distance Q,. Because £. is in the another. denominator large values of x mean small The simplest optical device for examining values of f. So the compound microscope can smal I objects is a single lens of short focal be regarded as a simple magnifier; as such its length. If f is the focal length in centimeters magnification is the magnification, m, is 25/f so one would be m = 25 =-t· 25 -fTi 0 tempted to consider that higher and higher magnifications could be easily obtained by Sometimes it is more usetul to consider the making f smaller and smaller. In practice effect of the two lenses separately. The first magnifications up to 20x can be achieved using lens (fi), usually called the objective, forms a simple magnifiers but attempts to get higher ,real, inverted image of the object in the focal magnifications are hindered by the aberrations plane of the second lens, the ocular or eyethat always accompany lenses of short enough piece lens. The lateral magnification of the focal length and large enough aperture to be objective is - x,/fi. The second lens is then used useful. as a simple magnifier to look more closely at The compound microscope overcomes this this intermediate image. The angular magnificadifficulty by using a pair of lenses relatively tion of the eyepiece is of course 25/f 2. The well separated. Elementary optics texts show overall magnification of the compound microthat if two lenses whose focal lengths are f 1 scope which we have al ready noted to be and f? are separated by a distance t, the [-£/fi] [25/f2] is merely the product of the effective focal length of the com bi nation is individual magnifications of the objective and given by the simple equation eyepiece lens. Because the magnification of the eyepiece 1_1 + 1 t -f-f f - ~ depends only on its focal length, it is feasible 2 1 to mark the lens mount with the magnificaThe equation looks more useful if t, the tion. This is the meaning of the numbers such distance between the lenses is replaced by£, as 1OX or 15X found on oculars. The magnifi- �25. cation of the objective on the other hand depends on the length , and unless this is known and constant the magnification cannot be specified. For this reason microscope manufacturers have standardized the distance . at 160 mm for the great majority of their instruments. For these microscopes it is possible to engrave the objective magnification on the lens barrel, the number is unchanged if the objective is used in a conventional microscope no matter what the country of origin an example of international cooperation that could well be imitated by other apparatus manufacturers. The overall magnification of the compound microscopes used by most schools is simply obtained by multiplying together the magnifications engraved on eyepiece and objective fenses. Another imoortant characteristic of the compound microscope is its resolving power or i ability to distinguish small details. This is not the same thing as magnification; it is relatively easy to get large magnifications, for example by making x, larger, but this does not ensure that more detail is visible. High magnification that is not accompanied by good resolution is called "empty magnification" because the increased image size does not carry any more information about the subject. The image is larger but blurrier. For a microscope of good quality the resolving power is limited by the diffraction of light in the plane of the object under examination; in an inferior instrument it could be limited by ordinary lens defects. A proper treatment of the theory of diffraction in microscopy is beyond the scope of this article, but some of the basic ideas can be conveyed in relatively simple terms. When a beam of light passes an object whose size is comparable to the wavelength of thP light, the beam is diffracted, by which we , mean that some of the Iight on the far side ot the object travels in directions different from the original one. Usually the beam breaks up into several beams - one undisturbed by the object, a pair making a small angle to the original direction, and so on. Two cases are illustrated in the following figures, first a relatively large object and then a small object. The diagrams illutstrate the important idea that the smaller the object is the larger are the diffraction angles, and the larger the object is the smaller are the diffraction angles. The information about the size and shape of the object is carried in the angular spread and relative intensities of the diffracted beams. The size of the object compared to the wavelength is also important in determining the angular spread of the diffracted beams. For an object of a given size the longer wavelengths (the red end of the spectrum) are diffracted through larger angles than the shorter wavelengths (the blue end of the spectrum). If the objective lens of the microscope is small in diameter compared to its distance from the object, the angle it subtends at the object will also be small. If the angle is so small that only the undiffracted beam enters the lens, then it is as if there were no object there at all, since that would also be the only beam in the absence of an object. In order even to detect the presence of the object the Undiffracted Beam Diffracted Diffracted Beams Beams \ =-1 \\f/ ~ Relatively J,1 large Object - _,... 8 t Incident light Undiffracted Beam Diffracted Diffracted Beams ~ .±~ / Smal I Object / ± Incident Light Beams �26 Objective Lens 1st Diffracted Beam e--Object lens must at least be able to accept the first diffracted beams as shown in the next diagram. The limit of resolution of a microscope is therefore the smallest object whose first diffracted beams are just accepted by the objective. Naturally, if more detail is needed than the mere existence of the object, then the lens must be able· to accept more of the diffracted beams. Strictly speaking, the resolving power is related to a quantity called the numerical aperture of the objective lens which is the product of the sine of the half-angle subtended by the lens at the object and the index of refraction of the medium below the lens usually air but sometimes not. The resolving power is the wavelength of the light divided by the numerical aperture - Aln sin ex: • The best~ resolution is obtained by using blue light and by filling the space between the object and the lens with a liquid ofhigh refractive index. EDITOR'S AND COLLABORATORS' COMMENTS 1 GIT L Po TI IPTLIGOTT: a sophisticated anglo-saxon surname? ...... . or is the answer simply biodegradable? Please permutate, decypher and send in your interpretation. �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. "CARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E 1 �PLEASE LEA VE ME ABOUT FOR OTHERS TO READ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 6 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 6, November 1975. Articles on a variety of topics: History of photography Culture, politics and geography Concentrated fire power Mathematics and the Arts student Marriage Topology Induction Photo-degradable plastics Compound microscopes Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-11 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/a3201cf561f5a198d4774141177ab299.pdf d6e502fcffa7cfc31e7f48f6f3b426b2 PDF Text Text LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY ' SCIENCE REVIE VOLUME 1 NUMBER 5 .6 �t L KEE NI E SIT S IE ERE IE incorporating LAKEHEAD UNNERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CARET IS PUBLISHED BY THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO, CANADA. P7B 5E1 EDITOR Dr. G. Harvais Lakehead University ASSOCIATE EDITOR Mr. B. Spenceley Lakehead University EDITORIAL BOARD Mr. W. Bilbrough, Lakeview High School, Thunder Bay. Mr. G. Campbell, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. C. Gehrels, Ontario Ministry of Education. Mr. W. Lajoie, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. J. Palko, Fort William Collegiate Institute, Thunder Bay. Mr. T. Reynolds, Queen Elizabeth High School, Sioux Lookout. CONTENTS VOLUME 1, NUMBER 5, May 1975 4 Who Says People Don't Get Involved? by Lynn Hamilton and Audrey Saxberg 6 9 Student Services About Pressing Plants by Professor C. Garton A Chemist in Thailand 11 by Dr. A. N. Hughes 16 Asbestos Contamination & Dr. R.A. Ross Affective Contrast: behavioral contrast of liking 19 by Dr. S. R. Goldstein Metrication? Surely, you don't mean it! 21 by Professor John Hart How Many Villagers? : an exercise... 23 by Mr. Robert S. Dilley Quality or Quantity: the modern dilemma 25 by Dr. Paul Barclay-Estrup Will I Need a Calculator in University? 29 by Professor C. Kent/ Betting Games that are a Sure Bet 31 by Dr. L.K. Roy An Analysis of the Game of Keno 33 by Dr. L. K. Roy Is the Mind a Material Object? or ....... Typesetter: Seppo Kasma Printing: LU. Printshop Design: LU. Media Services 34 by Dr. J. Douglas Rabb Colouring-In Maps 36 by Dr. Brian A.M. Phillips THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN CARET DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE OPINIONS OF THE EDITOR, THE FACULTY OR THE UNIVERSITY. OUR COVER arises from the article, "A Chemist in Thailand". Originally a Buddhist temple wall relief, it depicts the Thai calendar. The outer rim shows the twelve year cycle in which each year of the cycle is represented by an animal. �L I y I L I IC MASTER'S PR R El Bl L y It is anticipated that the M.Sc. (Biology) will commence in July of this year. This is contingent upon the arrival of Dr. Walter T. Momot, an aquatics biologist who is expected to join the staff of the department. The Ontario Council of Graduate Studies have approved the programme but have specified that only 8 students can be admitted initially. The areas of specialization are also to be somewhat restricted in the early stages with the provision of expansion in the future. Inquiries should be directed to the Chairman, Department of Biology, Lakehead University. E RAP Y The Department of Geography has revised its B.Sc. and Honours B.Sc. programs and has made a series of changes in its course offerings, aimed at providing greater choice for third and fourth year students. A copy of the new programs, with course descriptions, is posted on the Department notice board, and can also be obtained from the Department chairman. Science students should also note that there is now an Honours B.Sc. program in Geography with Geology minor: this replaces the old B.A. Geography-Geology program. EL GY "If you wish to become a geologist you should know that you may combine geological studies with four other disciplines: with Chemistry - the most popular and generally most useful combination with Physics - as the basis for a career as a geophysicist with Biology - for careers in the vitally important field of environmental studies with Economics - for careers in the management of non-renewable resources." �3. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR April 9, 1975. In Volume 1 no. 3 (p.37) and Volume 1 no. 4 (p.2) of your journal the name of the late Dr. L.S.B. Leakey is misspelled (as Leaky). As a fellow-member of Dr. Leakey's college (St. John's, Cambridge) I owe it to him to set this right. I would also like to note that his best-known discovery, Zinjanthropus boisei, is usually so spelled (not Zinganthropus). However, Z. boisei was not, as far as I know, also a member of my college. Such an old fossil was probably an Oxford man. Yours sincerely, Robert S. Dilley Lakehead University Thunder Bay * * * * * * * * * * * am delighted that Caret is read, and even scrutinized. Thank you for pointing out our errors to us. On the basis of this information, should the specific name be leakei or leakeyi, or ... ? (May I add that scientific names of organisms are always in a different type from that of the rest of the text, most commonly italics). - Editor March 12, 1975 I was horrified by the mistatements in the recent article by Dr. Richard Reis. i) He claims the most conservative estimate of the fraction of stars with planetary systems rv 1, and that a similar conservative estimate for the fraction of such planets on which life does develop ,..., 1. Most authorities would regard these 'conservative' figures most liberal! ii) There is still controversy surrounding the existence of planets around Banard's star - and I would hesitate to use this example to give "strong support to the statistical estimation that there may be at least fifty million planets in our galaxy." iii) He states "it is just as likely that we would be in a position to teach them much more than they can teach us about science & technology Bolderdash. The human race has been industrialized for about 2000 years - and has around 4 x 109 years before the sun novas. The probabi Iity of another civilization capable of communicating with the electromagnetic spectrum (which we have been using for about 50 years) learning from us is incredibly small. In short this article is erroneous and dul I. Surely the editors of Caret are capable of instituting a system of referees so that similar misleading articles are caught before they appear in print. Dr. J.S. Griffith Lakehead University Thunder Bay * * * * * * * * * * * am disappointed that Dr. Griffith did not "like Dr. Reis' article, but I hope that this difference of opinions will produce some enlightening comments. I would certainly like to hear from Dr. Reis again, but, alas, my attempts to get in touch with him have so far failed. I very much hope that, in the meantime, other readers will send in their comments. Caret is definitely NOT intended to be a referred scientific journal. I like to read in Dr. Griffith's letter, an offer to review articles for us. I would be delighted to call upon him in future. Meanwhile, I think this sort of controversy adds some spice to life. I like it. - Editor True or False? cataract: a cataract is a waterfall, a cascade. It is better known as an eye condition where the lens or the cornea becomes opaque. It is also a downpour of rain, a rush of water, a steam-engine governor acting by flow of water. How about carotid: yellowish or orange pigment associated with chlorophyl Is in all green plants. carob: the measure of weight for precious jewels and metals. goatsucker: a dairy woodpecker. �HO SAYS PEOPLE DON'T GET INVOLVED? 4. by: Lynn Hamilton and Audrey Saxberg Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. On the face of it the assignment seemed quite simple. Our public-spirited Physics professor, Dr. Hart, asked each class member to check the accuracy of two parking meters in town. As working mothers, who are part-time students, time is limited, and Wednesday evening at seven o'clock seemed best. We decided that at this time no one would be around to interfere with our work, and we could carry on unnoticed. Having made our decision as to time and date, we began settling things at home, discussing the assignment with our husbands in a matter-of-fact fashion. It was their reactins that gave us our first inkling that we were doing something extraordinary. "Are you kidding?" "You're not really going downtown to do that!" "You CAN'T put money in a parking meter after six o'clock!" "You really are going, aren't you?" Yes, we were. We met on Arthur Street and picked out a likely parking meter, found our change and got out the stopwatch and notebook. These unobtrusive perparations created a reaction. A man, 'sauced to the eyeballs' suddenly appeared from nowhere shouting "Hey lady, are you from out of town? You don't have to put money in the meters after six o'clock." "We re working on an assignment," we said, trying to sound nonchalant. "For the city?" he asked in a booming voice. "No, for our Physics class." "I 'II bet you 're really doing a secret report for the city," he shouted. (A crowd was gathering). "No, we're not," we said, and put the nickel in the meter, but before we had a moment to check the stopwatch, he had turned the dial and ruined our first timing. The crowd was getting larger. "These here ladies are doing a secret report for the city," our man said ceremoniously. 1 "If you magnetize the nickel before you put it in, it will gum up the works," one man told us helpfully. "I've heard if you cover a penny with aluminum foil, you can use it as a nickel," someone else said. "What kind of secret report are you doing?" someone else asked. "None," we said. Disgusted and embarrassed, and writing off the loss of the nickel to experience, we slunk away leaving them to their discussions as to just who we were and how to 'put one over' on the City Parking Authority. Finding another parking meter, this one with two meters attached, we decided to use it for our next two efforts. A car was parked by it, but we didn't feel that this was something to worry about. Out came the notebooks, in went the nickel. One of us held the lever while the other checked the stopwatch. We were intent on getting everything right this time. "Three, two, one - now!" and the lever was released triumphantly. The exact time was recorded - and we looked up into the startled faces of the car's owners. This respectable middle-aged couple apparently made an initial decision that it would be prudent to ignore us, but this proved to be too much for the lady. With one foot in her car, and the other still on the sidewalk, she paused, mouth opening and closing with no sound being emitted, eyes wide with questions. She stood like that for several seconds before her husband, anxious to get away from us, started to drive off, with the lady still half in and half out of the car. By this time we were beginning to feel slightly conspicuous. We were cold too, and decided to wait out most of the twenty minutes we had bought in a nearby restaurant. After sixteen minutes had passed we gulped down the rest of our coffee and darted out across the street to the meter. Good! We had caught it in time. The minutes ticked by and we stood poised with the stopwarch, waiting. The time was clocked. Half of the assignment was now �5. done. We looked up this time to find five men waving wildly in the restaurant window across the street. One came running over without his coat in sub-zero weather to tel I us that we didn't need to put money in the meters after six o'clock. "We know," we said. "Thank you," and left him there on the sidewalk staring at us and shivering. "Crazy women," he muttered. Up the street we went, and found another meter with two heads which would suffice for the last two timings. Out came the notebooks, in went the nickel. Zooming out the blackness came three boys on bicycles. "You don't have to put money in the meters after six o'clock," one said. Trying a different approach we answered, "Oh, really?" "I don't even drive and I'm not stupid enough to put money in a meter after six o'clock. What's wrong with you anyway?" (Not only had we met with opposition this time, but we had met it in angelic-looking, but nasty little boys). Using her 'mother-voice' my friend said, "Why aren't you boys at home? It's after nine o'clock." Using his 'brat-voice' one of the angels said, "Why aren't you in a rubber room, stupid ladies?", and with that they zoomed off leaving us quite mortified. All-in-all the whole experience was becoming quite trying. We sat on the curb, this time quite oblivious to passers-by who probably thought we had just come out of the hotel and were sobering up on the sidewalk. We took our last timing as the meter clicked off. Two couples passed by, and each said, "You don't have to put money in the meters after six o'clock." "We know," we said, "thank you." With our times recorded, our teeth chattering, our price at a new low we left downtown Port Arthur never to return again after six o'clock. Next time you think people on the street refuse to get involved in other people's problems, don't bet your parking meter money on it. EDITOR'S NOTE Over many centuries much has been written about spring and its effects on the lives of individuals and on society in general. We, in this part of Canada, are wel I aware of these effects, and I need not say much more on the subject. It is also that time of the year when old interests are renewed, new ones are born, and future activities are looked into more firmly. In the past, this has also been the time when we have had many inquiries from highschool students contemplating a university education. Particularly for the benefit of those students, we are printing some information on some of the facilities available at Lakehead University. (We would like to hear if it is helpful or not.) This is also the time when many teachers, students and nature lovers in general will find themselves spending more time in our "great outdoors". There is much biological activity in our North Western Ontario, but, alas, we are short of people to collect and analyse the data. So, when YOU are out there on a picnic, a fishing or other similar trip, why not 'mix business with pleasure', and contribute to our better understanding of our area? Study your flora. Collect some plants. Start a herbarium (at home or in your school). To help you, amateur or 'professional', Professor Claude Garton has kindly prepared some handy hints. (Professor Garton has contributed and is still contributing actively to our knowledge of our local flora, and he needs no introduction to plant taxonomists in this country). Now YOU TOO can benefit from his vast experience! Furthermore, he is always ready to help, and he may even lend you a plant press until you get your own! Why not make this a school project and start now? If pressing plants does not turn you on, you can still contribute through drawings, paintings, photographs, etc., and in many other ways. �6. The Canada Department of Manpower & Immigration maintains a Student Placement Office on the campus of Lakehead University. The aim of the Student Placement Office is to provide assistance to students who are seeking either part-time, summer or permanent employment. The assistance takes the form of a wide variety of services to students of all years and disciplines. An opportunity is offered to participate in the on-campus recruitment program whereby employers from the private and public sectors from all across Canada visit the University to recruit recent University graduates. The Office also has up-to-date career literature, brochures, employment statistics, and information about re-employment trends, salaries and Manpower programs such as student Mobility, Mobility Grants and Relocation Grants. Another form of assistance is direct referral to part-time and summer jobs. In order to take the fullest advantages of the services offered, students seeking employment should register with the Student Placement Office as early in the year as possible. Should you want to find out more about Manpower programs and services call 345-2121 extension 254 or visit the Student Placement Office located on the second floor of the University Centre Building. The Student Placement Office also serves High School students who are seeking summer part-time employment. The University provides new students with many opportunities for intellectual and personal growth. Personal problems often interfere with student' academic and social development. It is the concern of the Dean of Students and his staff to maintain in all students such a sense of well-being that they are able to take advantage of all the oppotunities for full development. The Dean of Students and the University physician are especially qualified to help stu- I dents resolve their personal difficulties. The Dean of Students is also available to help students resolve problems connected with their choice of a course of study or a vocation. The Dean of Students Office is also responsible for various forms of financial assistance to students. In addition to providing information and application forms for the Government programs, the office administers a number of scholarships, bursaries and awards. A summary of financial assistance available to entering students and continuing students in the faculty of science follows. Interested students requiring more information should contact the Dean of Students Office. ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS C.J. SANDERS SCHOLARSHIP - $1500. This scholarship was established from the proceeds of a generous grant made by Mr. Sanders to Lakehead University. To be awarded to an outstanding student enrolling in a course leading to a university degree at Lakehead University under the following conditions: (a) $500 payable at registration, provided a first class average in the grade 13 papers required for admission is obtained, and financial need is known; (b) $500 payable in the second and third years respectively, provided that at least second class average has been obtained in the previous year of the student's course at Lakehead University. THE BORA LASKIN SCHOLARSHIP Five scholarships of $1000 each will be awarded on the basis of academic standing to students entering the Energy and Fuel Science programme. The scholarships are renewable for a maximum of three years depending on academic progress. �7. KATHLEEN BOOTH SCHOLARSHIP Value totals $2000. This scholarship is open to al I Mathematics Majors and wi 11 be awarded at the discretion of the Department of Mathematical Sciences. C.A.P. ONTARIO UNIVERSITIES' PHYSICS TEST SCHOLARSHIP - Full tuition costs. To be awarded on the recommendation of the Physics Department to a student from Northwestern Ontario who achieves high marks in the C.A.P. Ontario Universities' Physics Test. LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIP - $300. All students entering Lakehead University with a standing of 80% or over are eligible for a Lakehead University Scholarship. No application is necessary for those scholarships awarded by the University since all students with an overal I average of 80% will be considered. NORMAN S. GRACE SCHOLARSHIP $80. To be awarded on the recommendation of the Department of Chemistry to a first year student of high academic standing who registers as a Chemistry Major. AUXILIARY TO ST. JOSEPH'S GENERAL HOSPITAL SCHOLARSHIP $150. To be awarded to a student preferably from Northwestern Ontario, who is entering the Bachelor of Science Nursing Degree Programme. The scholarship will be awarded on the basis of need and academic excellence. ENTRANCE BURSARIES AND AWARDS MARION E. TOMLINSON MEMORIAL BURSARY - $1000. To be awarded to a deserving student entering the degree or diploma programme at Lakehead University. $400 at registration, $300 at the beginning of the second year, $300 at the beginning of the third year, provided second class average is maintained. JOSEPH MARIEN MEMORIAL BURSAR I ES $500. Two bursaries of $500 each will be awarded to provide assistance to worthy and needy students seeking higher education in a degree programme. IBM THOMAS J. WATSON MEMORIAL BURSARIES - up to $200. To provide financial assistance to one or more needy students in good standing entering any faculty at Lakehead University. In addition, the donor provides an annual grantin-aid of $500 to the University. GREAT LAKES PAPER COMPANY FORESTRY BURSARY - $150. To be awarded to a deserving student entering the Forestry Diploma Programme at Lakehead University with the intention of proceeding to the degree programme. LOGOZZO AWARD - $150. To be awarded to a student entering the first year of a degree or diploma programme. The student should have a good scholastic record and excel at some athletic sport. Application forms for Entrance Scholarships and Bursaries are available from the Dean of Students Office. ONTARIO STUDENT ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME CANADA STUDENT LOAN PLAN These programmes are administered by the Ministry of Colleges and Universities of the Province of Ontario. They offer Canada student loans and provincial grants to provide awards for university and other postsecondary students. To be eligible to apply through the Ontario programme a student must be a Canadian citizen or a landed immigrant with at least twelve months residency in Ontario. An award is made after the student's loan and possibly a provincial grant is apportioned according to a formula established by the government. �8. Application forms and further details about these programmes may be obtained by contacting the Dean of Students Office. It is strongly recommended that interested students apply early to these programmes. Entrance students may apply for assistance before they receive their letters of acceptance from the university. INCOURSE SCHOLARSHIPS ANO BURSARIES A number of scholarships and bursaries are offered exclusively to 2nd to 4th year Science students. The following is a brief summary of those available. J.P. BICKELL FOUNDATION SCHOLARSH IP - $1500. (to be paid at a rate of $500 a year for three years provided the student maintains first class standing in the course). To be awarded to a student who obtains 80% in a science or applied science course at the end of the first year, who plans to take a degree in mining, metallurgy, geology or chemical engineering. ALLIED CHEMICAL CANADA, LIMITED, SCHOLARSHIP IN THE CHEMICAL SCIENCES - $750 and silver tray. The Allied Chemical Company of Canada, Limited offers a scholarship of $750 and a silver tray to be awarded to a student, not otherwise holding a scholarship, entering the final year of undergraduate studies in a chemistry programme. The award will be based on high academic achievement in previous undergraduate years and leadership qualities as demonstrated by participation in extra-curricular activities. PETER MCKELLAR SPENCE MEMORIAL SCHOLARSHIP - $200. To be awarded to a student who is continuing his education at Lakehead University. Those going on in Science, particularly Medicine or Nursing will be given preference. CHEMICAL INSTITUTE OF CANADA, LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIP - $50. To be awarded to an outstanding student entering the third year chemistry at Lakehead University. The grade of the student receiving this scholarship must not be less than 80%. THUNDER BAY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION BURSARY - $500. To be awarded annually to a student or students who plan to continue their education in medicine, nursing or pure science. J.P. BICKELL FOUNDATION BURSARI ES - Total award $750. To be awarded on the basis of financial need to students registered in geology, mining, metallurgy or chemical engineering. ABITIBI PAPER COMPANY LIMITED BURSARY - $250. To be awarded on the basis of financial need, to a student showing general proficiency in his study of science or forestry who has demonstrated his intention to pursue further his studies in science or forestry at Lakehead University. PRINCESS BEATRICE CHAPTER 1.O.D.E. BURSARY - $100. To assist a student in science at the end of first or second year. Awarded annually on the basis of scholastic standing and financial need with preference being given to a son or daughter of a war veteran. INTERPROVINCIAL PIPE LINE COMPANY BURSARIES Total value $2500. Up to ten $250 bursaries wi 11 be awarded to deserving students, depending on need, who are continuing their education at Lakehead University; minimum of 50% of the bursaries wi 11 be awarded to students in the applied sciences. Awarded to Canadian and United States residents. Application forms are available from the Dean of Students Office and must be submitted by August 8th, 1975. �E SI A OUT by: Professor C. Garton, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. • WHY PRESS PLANTS? If living material is available this at first does not seem necessary. But our weather here is seasonal, and even in the tropics plants are subject to flushes of growth and fruiting. Through drying and pressing you can have plants at various stages of their development, all available at the same time for study. Besides, in the field you cannot easily examine a plant or its parts under a microscope. It may not even be possible to get it back to a laboratory to do so while it is fresh. So, press it and examine it at your leisure or convenience. A further advantage of dried specimens is that you can compare plants at different stages of their development or the same species from different localities. Individual and geographic differences are as much a feature of plants as of animals. Another important point, particularly in the naming and description of species: you can examine the same plant even after many years, for well-prepared and wel Ipreserved herbarium specimens will last for centuries. HOW DO I GO ABOUT PRESSING PLANTS? Exact instructions can be secured from the herbarium or from books. There are several more general points to be noted. 1. Get good representative material, neither too fat, too thin, too short, too tall. When plants are averaging one metre tall, it is foolish to select a 10 cm. dwarf simply because it will go into your press. 2. When plants are smaller than your press get several as different as possible to show variation. 3. Whatever the pressed plant does not show must be given in notes. If it is a tree, how tall is it, what kind of branching it demonstrates, what its bark is like (a sample if possible). Many trees bear fruits which, like those of many other 9. plants, are large and inconvenient for a press - save these separately. With most larger plants only fragments can be taken; so notes must be made about the whole plants. 4. Pressing does not usually retain the exact colour of a living plant. Notes again must record this. 5. All plant parts are three dimensional. The pressed plant has only two dimensions. A careful collector will provide for depth by such devices as splitting and flattening, for example, the corollas of tubular flowers, the leaves of the pitcher plant. A few extra flower heads pressed with the specimen can be included on the sheet in small easily opened envelopes. This is particularly necessary with grasses, sedges and al I plants where seed attachment such as in the Crucifers is critical in determining the species. 6. Unless a pressed plant is well supported with critical data it is worthless for future study. Date of collection, collector, place (and this must be exact enough so that a reader can locate the si~e), association (other plants growing with this particular one) amount of light, soil, moisture, habit of growth are some of the necessary items. It is wise to have in the field a pad with duplicate sheets so that notes can be made on the spot. The original is put with the specimen at the time. The duplicate provides a ready reference. 7. As to the actual mechanics of pressing and mounting the specimen you will get instructions and then develop your own techniques. That will give you specimens that wi 11 be a joy to behold and a pleasure to study. HINTS TO COLLECTORS 1. Latitude and longitude exact to the minute. 2. Distance from nearest post office. 3. Other data as exact as possible: township, concession and lot number, river, lake, stream etc. �10. 4. All data not shown by specimen: (a) Shrub or tree: height, type of growth, bark characteristics. (b) Herbs: type of growth - prostrate, 13. Gather mature seeds if available. These can be put in small envelopes to prevent loss. 14. If the plant is parasitic, as dodder, erect, climbing, submersed (give depth of water), floating. (c) Type of substrata: mud, silts, clay, loams, sand, gravel etc. (d) Plant associations: other dominant plants growing with this species. (e) Colour of foliage and inflorescence, recognizable portions of the host plant are desirable. 15. Plants should be put in the press for a few hours to relax. Then leaves, stems and floral parts can be straightened and rearranged. etc. (f) Name of collector. (g) Date of collection. SPECIMENS: 1. Average specimens as available. Smaller or larger than average specimens should 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. be avoided. Use newspaper folders which are smaller than 12" x 18" (News Chronicle and Times Journal excellent. Toronto, Globe & Mail, Star etc. are too large). Bend and criscross specimens to fit sheet. Make sure there are no protruding parts. Arrange specimens so that leaves show both dorsal and ventral surfaces. Arrange floral parts to show all floral structures. It may be necessary to split tubular corollas etc. Extra floral parts should be gathered where available. For grasses, sedges, rushes, etc. extra heads should be gathered. If available, be sure to collect enough specimens to completely fill 2 full sheets. If a plant is rare, as with orchids, one specimen as a record is sufficient in the interests of conservation. 10. Be sure to collect al I parts of the plant, including underground portions. 11. Roots etc. should be washed and dried off before pressing. 12. Flaccid plants, particularly water plants need to be floated in water over a screen and I ifted out on the screen to prevent matting. If these are allowed to dry for a few minutes the plants can then be transferred to the newspaper folder with ease. SPECIFIC DATA FOR FAMILIES AND GENERA: 1. Crucifers must be gathered with some mature fruit. 2. Sedges, grasses and rushes must have mature seeds but the heads must not be desi ntegrati ng. 3. Violets must have roots and rhizomes for determinations. Also, the late summer flowers or cleistogenes should be gathered. 4. Hawthorns require collection of flowers and, later, mature fruits. 5. Ferns must show the type of indusium 6. Pond weeds must show mature fruiting heads along with underground rhizomes 7. Composites must show type of florets and the involucre. 8. Orchids are usually covered with a heavy waxy epidermis. This prolongs drying time. In addition orchids have juices which are readily oxidised. Discolouring is almost inevitable unless gentle heat is used to hasten drying. 9. Mature fruits as in roses, currants etc. should be gathered and pressed. If possible these should be preserved in a suitable preservative in vials. 10. Cactus plants are extremely resistant to desiccation. These are usually split in half. 11. Mosses, lichens, and liverworts should be separated from substrata and pressed with gentle pressure as with other plants. 12. Most legumes must show both flowers and mature fruits for determination. GENERAL: 1. Moderate pressure is essential. Extreme pressure produces brittle, deformed specimens. (continued page 15) �by: Dr. A.N. Hughes Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. One of the great privileges of academic life (and, in my opinion, one which must be preserved at almost any cost) is sabbatical leave. This allows a professor who is somewhat ragged at the edges to go elsewhere and engage in scholarly activity of his choice for a year free from the daily cares of routine administration, University politics and student lynch mobs thirsting for his blood. If he so desires, he may not only change his location but he may also change to another culture. This is what I chose to do when after investigating various Universities active in my research field ( organophosphorus chemistry) in Australia, Britain and Germany, I decided to spend my year at Mahidol University in Thailand. The reasons for this were numerous. First, I had spent the years 1960-62 in Malaya (now Malaysia), and my wife and I had been very happy in South East Asia despite the Malayan emergency which finished shortly after our arrival. During our time in Malaya, we had visited Thailand as impoverished tourists and we were greatly impressed by the country, especially by the Thai culture and the easy acceptance of foreigners by the Thai people. We later returned to Thailand for a much longer stay ( 1964- 1967) where I worked at the University of Medical Sciences (now Mahidol University) in Bangkok. Our three years there had been very rewarding and academically successful, and we had made many Thai friends. We therefore decided to ask if we might go back for a further year, knowing how good the facilities for chemistry were there. We were accordingly delighted to hear from the Dean of Science, Dr. Kamchorn Manunapichu, that not only were we welcome but that he had arranged for the required Thai government approval of my visit, air-conditioned office space, full library and laboratory faci Iities and a car for my use a treatment which few sabbaticants in the western world would receive! In return, the University asked me to set aside only two or three hours each week to lecture on my special research interests and to advise graduate students from time to time. These arrangements were ideal for sabbatical study and we therefore set off for Bangkok in 1973, via Singapore and Malaysia. The day after our arrival we were able to find an excellent fully air-conditioned apartment in a block consisting of several low buildings grouped around a central court containing miniature Japanese gardens, shaded lawns, clumps of bamboo, fan palms and a swimming pool. These apartments were situated next to a beautifully landscaped small estate owned by a princess and were extremely wel I run by the Thai owner who ran them almost like a friendly club. Ail cleaning and laundry were done for us and we hired our own cook. There was the added bonus of an armed police guard on the gate at night to discourage burglars who are sometimes quite violent when caught in the act. These apartments were about ten minutes walk from the University but about 45 minutes drive. The Bangkok traffic is an unbelievable nightmare with eight-lane highways completely jammed for miles at rush hour (which seemed to be all hours except midnight to 6 a.m.). Before describing our year in Thailand, a brief account of the country is in order. Formerly known as Siam (the name was changed about thirty years ago), Thailand, which means the land of the free, lies south of China and is bounded by the turbulent countries of Burma, Laos and Cambodia and the more tranquil Malaysia. Alone of all South East Asian states, it was never a colony of a European power. This �12. was in large part due to the high degree of skill in dealing with Europeans shown by the rulers of the country, principally King Mongkut (inaccurately portrayed in "The King and / and his son Chulalongkorn, at the time of colonial expansion in this area. The absolute monarchy was overthrown very politely and gently in the Thai manner in 1932 and the country became a constitutional monarchy ruled by a variety of civilian and military governments ever since. Most changes of government have been effected by coups d etat, many of which, by the standards of the rest of the world, have been very gentlemanly affairs having no great effect upon the general population other than a few tense days. However, the revolution which occurred during our visit was somewhat different more of this later. The present monarch is King Bhumibol Adulyadej, otherwise known as Rama IX, and the religion of the country is Hinayana Buddhism. This last probably explains the gentle and tolerant nature of most Thais. The capital is Krung Thep {the City of Angels) which is known in the West as Bangkok. It is a modern city of three million people and is situated on the central rice plain near the mouth of the Chao Phya river. 0 ) 1 The University system in Thailand in some ways resembles a combination of European and North American systems but superimposed upon this is a strong Thai flavour. For example, in Bangkok there are five Universities but only one of these is the very broad based University of the type which one would see in Canada. This is Chulalongkorn University which was founded about seventy years ago and which has the usual faculties in Arts, Science, Engineering etc. which we associate with Western Universities. The other Universities are somewhat different in character. Thus, Thammasat University, The University of Moral and Political Philosophy, is almost exactly what its title implies and has (very sensibly some would say) no faculties or departments of physical, biological, earth or applied sciences. It produces many of the nation's lawyers for example. The three other Bangkok Universities are very like large professional institutions with the emphasis on some aspect of professional activity, such as Mahidol University (the University of Medical Sciences), Kasetsart University (Agriculture) and Silapakorn University (Fine Arts). Three regional Universities lie outside Bangkok. The oldest of these ( 1963) is beautifully situated at Chiangmai in the far north of Thailand with the other two at Haadyai (extreme south) and Khon • Kaen (north east). These are building up to the conventional broad based structure of a Western University. Virtually all instruction in Thai Universities is in Thai although most students have a working knowledge of English. Perhaps it should also be added that the Thai language sounds something like Chinese but in reality it is a mixture of monosyllabic tonal (five tones) words similar to Chinese together with many polysyllabic words derived from Sanskrit. Mahidol University has a number of faculties such as Science (where I was), Medicine (two teaching hospitals), Dentistry, Tropical Medicine, Pharmacy and several others relating to the study of medicine scattered all over the city. The Faculty of Science was founded about fourteen years ago by a very able Thai chemist, Professor Stang Mongkolsuk, who was tragically murdered a few years ago. It consists of a giant complex of seven sixstorey buildings, built over the last seven years, which are extremely modern and, on the whole, very well equipped. The funds for building such a complex came from the Thai government and the Rockefeller Foundation, and technical assistance in the way of small number of academic staff, technical workshops and certain pieces of advanced equipment have been provided by the Rockefeller Foundation, The Columbo Plan (Britain and Australia), M.I.T. and the German government. There is also an English Language Institute and a very good library (particularly for Chemists). The Faculty of Science is also wel I sited in �13. relation to other institutes of advanced study which have a variety of equipment and library facilities and the nearby National Research Council of Thailand has some excellent facilities. The Department of Chemistry is housed in one of the large modern six-storey buildings and is well staffed with very able Thais trained to the doctoral and postdoctoral level in a number of countries such as Canada, Britain, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Germany and Norway. The degree program is four years with the first two years fairly general in nature but with the last two years being an intensive treatment of Chemistry at a level comparable with that in Canada. The emphasis is upon organic chemistry and physical chemistry since there is a shortage of teachers highly trained in inorganic chemistry. The research effort is relatively recent but al ready there are active research programs in physical and organic chemistry with the main research areas in liquid crystal studies, the nature of oscillating reactions, natural product characterizations and synthesis, the development of new organic synthetic methods, mechanistic investigations and now organophosphorus chemistry. The range of equipment available for these studies is impressive. For example, they have a Varian A60-D NM R spectrometer on the premises with access to two other NMR spectrometers in other institutions. In addition, there are the usual infrared and ultraviolet spectrophotometers, analytical and preparative gas chromatographs and facilities for C, H and N microanalysis. A further range of modern equipment is also available in the wellstaffed Department of Biochemistry. There is as yet no mass spectrometer, but moves have been initiated to acquire one in the fairly near future. A small but modern glassblowing shop set up with the aid of the German Government completes the facilities. On top of this, the worldwide contacts of the staff makes most types of instrumental investigation available to the department. I These research programs have been conducted by the academic staff but recently, a substantial number of students have been enrolled in the M.Sc. graduate program which has been running in its present form for three or four years. At the moment, there are about 35 students involved in physical and organic graduate work and, after about eight months of intensive course work, the students become actively engaged in research in cooperation with a staff member or a group of staff members. This year, the doctoral program in Chemistry started and the first students are now enrolled. All of these research efforts are greatly aided by the fact that Bangkok has a major international airport with most of the world's leading airlines calling there. There is therefore a steady flow of distinguished academics and technical experts from other countries through Bangkok and the internal seminar program is reinforced by several guest lectures each year from visitors to Thailand. I should also add that I am not the first sabbatical visitor to the Department of Chemistry. There have been other such visitors from Britain and Australia and when I left, another Canadian chemis~ was enquiring about the possibility of going to Thailand. Also, Dr. Hart of Lakehead University visited the Department of Physics a few years ago. My own work there fol lowed two main lines. The first of these was to write in cooperation with Dr. Holah and Dr. Hui of Lakehead University, several research papers on results accumulated on various research projects in organic, organometallic, and inorganic chemistry over the previous eighteen months or so. Also a major review of the coordination chemistry of phosphorus heterocycles was prepared for publication. The second aspect of my work in Bangkok was to start a research program there in organophosphorus chemistry. In particular, I wished to start an investigation of the synthesis and reactions of a class of compounds cal led the benzophospholes which have the structure shown below. I �14. benzophosphole phosphole These are of particular interest at the moment because they have as yet received virtually no attention and because they are closely related to the phospholes. The phospholes have provided a puzzle regarding their electronic structure which has still not been satisfactorily solved even after about fifteen years of study. In this connection the behaviour of the phosphorus non-bonding electron pair is of interest. I was very fortunate to have two graduate students offer to do their research work under my supervision jointly with two Thai staff members. Th is work proved to be experimentally very difficult but has now begun to yield useful results. Thus, one of the students has been able to expand the five-membered ring in benzophospholes to a six-membered ring by two different methods involving the nonbonding electron pair and this provides valuable information regarding the electro~ic structure of the system. These results can be integrated with the work we are doing at Lakehead University which is to look at the coordinating ability of organophosphorus compounds towards various transition metal systems. It is possible that some of the resulting compounds will have catalytic activity in a variety of reactions and, indeed, we have prepared several such catalysts, two of which show excel lent activity in homogeneous hydrogenation reactions. In addition to my writing and research, I gave a course in organophosphorus chemistry to the graduate students. This was invaluable to me since it made me get up to date in a number of areas which, through pressure of work I had been forced to neglect until then. I was also invited to give the same course on a crash basis (four hours a day for a week) to final-year undergraduate students at the new Prince of Songkhla University at Haadyai near the Malaysian border about 700 miles south of Bangkok. This trip was a very nice change although it had its exciting moments since bandits and insurgents occupy a number of areas in the region which is mostly jungleclad hills. Also, I was told that four people had been shot at the University in the two months preceding my visit. The University has two campuses separated by about 100 miles, and while driving from the main campus at Haadyai to the other one at Pattani, my Thai companion pointed out the sites of various armed bandit attacks and shoot-outs. On the return journey after dark, it was suggested that I should keep a look-out for roadblocks and for lights in the hills. I was told, however, that if we reached safely a particular point on the road, there should be no problem thereafter! Apart from the academic success of the year, there are a number of other things upon which we can look back. Undoubtedly the highlight of the year was the revolution which occurred in mid-October 1973 about 3½ months after we had arrived. This had been simmering for a long time and probably only a Thai could give the real detailed reasons for it. However, it was clear that the people in general were dissatisfied with the authoritarian and apparently corrupt way in which the Prime Minister, (Field Marshall Thanom Kittikachorn) the Deputy Prime Minister, (General Prapas Charasutiara) and the Prime Minister's son (Narong Kittikachorn) were running the country. Accordingly, protests and demonstrations, led mainly by students, bui It up gradually over a period of several weeks and finally came to a head with troops, police and many helicopters firing upon huge crowds of demonstrators near Thammasat University and the old Grand Palace. This resulted in two or three days of heavy fighting, mainly in the city �15. centre, with about a thousand people being killed or wounded. Several government buildings were destroyed by fire and towards the end of the fighting, a large group of Engineering students laid siege to the main police headquarters. This was situated in such a fashion that the students had to cross a large expanse of open road to approach the building and over twenty students were shot down while storming the headquarters. Finally, the building was set on fire with the aid of a water truck containing gasoline. These events resulted in Thanom, Prapas and Narong being ordered out of the country by the Army Commander who refused to fire on the demonstrators any more and, under the guidance of the King (a highly respected figure), an interim government was appointed and charged with formulating a new constitution leading to elections. These have now been held and Thailand is ruled by a representatively elected government. During these events, we retired to our apartment compound .and from the roof watched buildings burning in the distance and listened to the wail of ambulance sirens. We heard only one or two shots in our area. On the first day of fighting, I tried to get to work but the traffic lights were all smashed, the roads were littered with broken glass, debris and smouldering barricades and al I police had fled the streets. It was therefore pointless in view of the choked roads to attempt the drive, and I returned to the apartment. The remainder of the year was extremely pleasant. For example, we were able to visit the northern capital of Chiangmai which is a very old city, formerly the capital of an independent state, situated in a beautiful valley, surrounded by jungleclad hills inhabited by various non-Thai hill tribes. It is as yet relatively uncontaminated by the West but, unfortunately, it is beginning to change its character with luxury tourist hotels being built. We were also able to feast regularly upon a tremendous variety of foods such as Thai, Chinese (several styles), Korean, Indian, and Indonesian, as well as various Western styles. Some items on the menu may not appeal immediately to the Canadian palate. For example, among other things, at country restaurants I have eaten chopped cobra fried with red chili, deep fried tree lizard, fried frogs, chicken claw skin in chili vinegar and pigs duodenum together with less easily identified dishes, most of which were delicious. However, I decided to miss out on the bats blood soup. The year was so rewarding that I could write on and on about up-country trips to make end-of-Buddhist-lent offerings to the monks at a country temple, the beauty and rhythm of Thai classical dancing, the calm of the Thai countryside, the superb National Theatre and Thai art in general (see front cover), and the colourful markets. Indeed, I often feel that the Thais have a lot more to offer us than we have to offer them. However, the year (and this article) finally came to an end and we managed to secure cheap ( ! ) charter flights home via Moscow which seemed to us to be a very gloomy and rather bad-tempered city. It would, however, be wrong of me to close before thanking Drs. Kamchorn Manunapichu, Vichai Reutrakul, Siriporn Phisithkul, Kosan Kusamran and my other Thai colleagues for making my visit so academically and socially successful. ABOUT PRESSING PLANTS (from page 10) 2_ Ventilators and driers should, if possible, be changed every day and sun-dried. If weather does not permit, then spread in a heated room. 3. If extra sets of ventilators and driers are not available, several thicknesses of newspaper between each specimen sheet is helpful. 4. Counter cheque books make a good form of record. The original is put with the specimen and the duplicate forms a chronological diary of specimens. 5. Be sure to number your specimens either using numbers chronologically from year to year or prefexing as: 75-1, 75-2, 75-3 etc; 76-1, 76-2, etc. �16. ASBESTOS CONTA INATION OF LAKE SUPERIOR and Dr. I.A.ROSS The ready availability of sophisticated analytical equipment in the past two decades has caused experimental scientists to become increasingly aware of the pronounced physical & chemical effects that may arise through the presence of impurities and/or imperfections in inorganic or organic materials. Thus, for example, profound changes in the electrical conductivity of germanium or silicon can be effected by introducing into their lattices extremely small amounts of elements from adjacent columns of the periodic table. At liquid helium temperature, -4° K, the resistivity of germanium changes from 10 10 to 5 x 10-3 ohm cm when the impurity concentration of antimony is increased from 5 x 10 14 to 10 18 atoms cc-1 . The contribution of Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley to the theory of such phenomena resulted in their receipt of a Nobel prize and we have all benefited tremendously in the application of these concepts to technology - transistor radios, time-pieces, miniature circuits and so on. There are many further examples of scientific and medical phenomena of major import that can be initiated and sustained through the intervention of impurities within a reaction process or system. In research laboratories dealing with studies of reactions at interfaces results are often painfully distorted through the contamination of surfaces by traces of unknown species that have been unwittingly introduced to the system during a prior preparative stage. In this connection the possible presence of impurities in wash water presents a particular hazard. Lakehead University takes its water from the Port Arthur ward system in Thunder Bay. This water is drawn from Lake Superior and is largely untreated. There are many 'tales' - old wives' and otherwise - regard- ing the quality of this water and, among other suspected contaminants, asbestos may be present. There is sufficient responsible scientific and medical opinion regarding the possible health hazards of this material, that further motivation was added to the Lakehead quest to obtain an analysis of asbestos fibres in our water supply. For comparison, data were also obtained for the asbestos content in water taken from homes in the Fort William ward and in Duluth, Minnesota. The results below were obtained by Allan MacKenzie, using the electron microscope of the Instrumentation Laboratory in the Faculty of Science, towards the end of January, 1975. Fibre count (fibres.litre-1 ) Doubly Distilled Water 0.15 x 106 Tap Water: 0.17 X 106 F.W. ward P.A. ward 0.45 to 14.7 X 106 Duluth 12 X 106 (The high result for the Port Arthur ward has since been shown to lie within the range determined by scientists at McMaster University, 10 to 20 x 106 fibres.litre-1, on samples of Bare Point water the source of the Port Arthur supply.) A substantial amount of public concern regarding the quality of the drinking water supply in Port Arthur ward has been apparent for several years and this concern was increased by the publication of the Lakehead University results. Reports and interviews have been carried in print, sound and vision by all the local Thunder Bay outlets and in Duluth, Minnesota. We reprint below an interview with Dr. R.A. Ross, Dean, Faculty of Science, which first appeared in the "Biology Newsletter" of Lakehead University in March 1975. �17. ASBESTOS: An Interview with Dr. Ross, Dean of Science 0. (BIOLOGY CLUB NEWSLETTER}. What was the asbestos content of the Port Arthur tap water which you sampled? A. (DR. ROSS). We found 14.7 x 106 fibres/litre in the water. 0. How does this value compare with the Government's findings? A. Their values show less than 1 x 106 fibres/litre. 0. Do you know why there is a discrepancy between these figures? A. We are not sure. Their samples were taken last fall, presumably from the lake. We sampled the tap water somewhat later. The handling of the samples might influence the results. For example, asbestos is known to stick to the sides of glass containers, if stored for a period of time. Since the government samples are not tested here, but are sent away for analysis, we may speculate that they are stored for longer periods than our samples. The government uses a different analytical technique; however, this should not produce discrepancies of this order of magnitude. 0. Is a standard technique available? A. No. Different laboratories use different methods. We plan to conduct a series of some fifty tests on water samples to examine the effect of the nature of the container and of the prior treatment of the container on the asbestos content of water over a period of weeks. We have also volunteered to test a sample, obtained by a neutral sampler, that the Government and McMaster University would also test, in order to compare results; but the Government does not have enough funds available at this time. 0. Would the presence of asbestos in the air affect the asbestos content of your samples? A. No. The samples are kept in sealed containers. 0. Is there any way of identifying the source of the asbestos fibres? A. There are various types of asbestos. It occurs in two main forms: a chain type and a sheet type. Electron and x-ray diffraction techniques, in combination with electron microscopy, can distinguish between them. The type of fibre would depend on the source of the fibres. 0. Do you have any idea where the asbestos is coming from? A. At the moment we have no conclusive answer. 0. What is the safe level for asbestos in water? A. It is not known if asbestos is harmful if taken orally. The Government is doing some studies on rats concerning the oral ingestion of asbestos, but until these studies are completed, we can only speculate regarding the danger from the asbestos in the water. 0. Do you know if asbestos would have a synergistic effect in combination with other chemicals, which might be present in water. A. No. An in-depth study of the biological properties of asbestos is needed. We have little idea, in fact, of the surface properties of asbestos. Dr. Murphy, who is working in my laboratory, is studying this aspect of asbestos. Synergism is possible. What we really need is a complete study that would identify every component of the water and examine the possible interactions of the substances present. 0. What do you think should be the next step in research of this nature? A. As I already mentioned, asbestos is not the only substance to be found in tap water. Until a complete study of the water is performed, to include both organic and inorganic substances, we cannot tell what dangers, if any, are present. It is possible that there are substances which should be of much greater concern than asbestos. In terms of asbestos, we need to find the safe level, before we can take any action. Government controls of gaseous emissions are very stringent, but much more work is needed with liquid effluents. �(14,300 X) Dr. R.A. Ross, Dean, Faculty of Science One of the areas of research of Dr. Ross and his team relates to asbestos in our drinking water. Transmission electron micrograph of asbestos fibres in our water samples. (Note tendency for fibres to clump into bundles). Scanning electron micrograph of diatomaceous and other debris found in our water samples. Mr. Al Ian MacKenzie examining water samples at Lakehead University with a transmission electron microscope. �AFFECTIVE CONTRAST: BEHAVIORAL CONTRAST OF LIKING by: Dr. S. R. Goldstein Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. If psychologists were asked to identify the single most important adaptive mechanism adjusting organisms to their environment they would probably point to the ability to form discriminations as their first choice. The reason for this choice is fairly obvious; organisms must behave in different ways in different contexts if they are to survive. It is therefore, not surprising, that during the past 50 years a great deal of laboratory research has been directed at learning about how discriminations are formed. One rather interesting recent finding is that the formation of a discrimination is frequently accompanied by certain behavioral "side effects". In what follows I describe a standard laboratory demonstration of a discrimination and a side effect called behavioral contrast as a means of introducing one aspect of my experimental extension of this area. To demonstrate the formation of a discrimination, a hungry animal, say a pigeon, is placed into a small experimental space called a Skinner box. The box contains a circular target-striking device mounted at the bird's eye-level on one wall of the chamber. By the use of a control switch it is possible to illuminate this target with one of several colored lights. The Skinner box also contains a mechanism that delivers a small amount of grain to the pigeon if and when he strikes the target. The pigeon is first taught to peck the target by rewarding or reinforcing, with food, only those responses that progressively resemble the appropriate response. When the bird is pecking at a substantial rate the response key is successively ii luminated with a red and then a green light to determine whether the pigeon has a natural tendency to peck at different rates in the presence of the two lights. Since the bird is being equally rewarded in the presence of each light st'imulus any preference will soon disappear. To establish a discrimination, conditions are arranged so that responses made in the presence of, say, the green light continue to be reinforced while those responses occuring during the presence of the red light go unreinforced. Figure 1 shows the outcome of such an experiment. Section A of the figure shows that during pre-discrimination training the rate of response to the red ahd green lights are about equal. In section B we see the expected decline in response rate to the red stimulus signalling nonreinforcement. It is, however, the response rate to the reinforced green stimulus that is of special interest; for instead of maintaining the prediscrimination rate of response we now find that the rate •has increased above baseline even though the reinforcing status of the green light has remained unchanged. The diverging response rates to the green and red lights are indicative of a discrimination and the increase rate of response above baseline level is indicative of behavioral contrast. Although we do not have a ful I explanation of behavioral contrast, in some way or another it is apparently related to the aversive or inhibiting consequences of nonreinforcement. A criticism frequently directed at behavioral research with "lower" organisms is that such work is totally irrelevant to the complex functioning of the human mind. Of what possible significance is it to us, so the argument goes, that a rat or a pigeon shows behavioral contrast while learning to discriminate red from green lights in a highly artificial environment? Consider then, the following more relevant situation. Our so called attitudes and feelings about one another are determined to a large extent by certain kinds of information we infer, experience directly, or have conveyed to us by certain others. For example, if a stranger is characterized to you as opportunistic, cunning and selfcentred, your reaction to him on first meeting will be colored by this description and will probably be negative. �20. In the following experiment, introductory psychology students were presented a series of slides of two imaginary people cal led Person A and Person B. An adjective was placed on the bottom of each slide describing the person in question. The students' task was simply to rate, on a scale from 0 (Dislike) to 5 (Like}, how much they liked the person in question after having seen the descriptive adjective. Two imaginary people were used in this experiment as a para I lel to the red and green light conditions in the pigeon experiment. Thus during the first, prediscrimination phase of the study, the adjectives describing both Person A and Person B were selected which, previous research had shown, had a "likeableness" value in the 2.5 or neutral range. A total of 10 such slides for each "person" were presented. Immediately following this, the adjectives describing Person B were changed for the worse; in fact to levels which previous research had shown were in the 0 to 1 range. Again ten such slides were used. At the same time the quantitative value of the descriptive adjectives for Person A remained unchanged so that in all, a total of 20 slides of equal value were used to describe Person A. Figure 2 shows the results of this study. Section a, the prediscrimination phase shows that both Person A and Person B were equally liked, according to the ratings. Section b shows that when negative attributes were used to characterize person B his rating dropped rapidly and approached zero. But most significantly for our purpose was the fact that although the likeableness content for Person A remained unchanged as Person B got worse, Person A's appeal increased significantly in the eyes or minds or behaviour of the students doing the rating. The experiment, therefore, points to a continuity in the formation of discriminations acrpss a wide range of species and situations. In addition the experiment suggests that behavioral contrast may be the mechanism behind various types of prejudice whereby one gains a better estimate of oneself by putting someone else down, even though the new incoming information about oneself does not warrant the enhanced evaluation. Finally on a more optimistic note, laboratory research has taught us a great deal about the nature of behavioral contrast, including several ways of preventing its formation. My students and I have extended these techniques to situations like the one described above and have obtained some promising results. At the same time we have begun to extend the idea of behavioral contrast to such diverse areas as population dynamics and marxian dialectics. BEHAVIOURAL CONTRAST B A w ~ a: LU (/) z 2 (/) w a: TRIALS Figure 1: Rate of response to a green and a red light when both are equally reinforced (Section A) and when responses to red are not reinforced while responses to green continue to be reinforced (Section 8). x is the expected projected rate of response to green, y shows the actual rate. AFFECTIVE CONTRAST a PERSON A I\ I ~-- ·~~PERSON 0 I 0 5 I I 10 15 WORD NUMBER B I 20 Figure 2: Behavioral contrast of "likeableness" ratings. In section a the information content for Person A and Person B was the same and so are the likeableness evaluations. In Section b the likeableness ratings for Person B go down as negative information is received while those for Person A go up even though the "likeableness" information remains unchanged. �ETRIC Tl ? RELY Y by: Professor John Hart, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. Almost everything that could be said about the metric system has been said in the past hundred years or so, and despite the efforts of various commissions to inject some liveliness into the subject, it's a dead issue: in the contemporary jargon, SI units are here to stay. It is a pity that some of the terms we have to use reflect the stupidity of the scientists af international standards commissions and the recalcitrance of certain nations; but the fact is that to the world at large, metrication is pretty much a dead issue, and the amount of time and effort that is going into selling the system to North America is largely wasted. Why then, Mr. Editor ( I think you were born in a metric country?) why then should I waste your readers' time with yet another article on metrication: why soil the pages of CARET with such pollution? My motivation, my dear friend, does not concern metrication as such. The decision as to which system of units a nation should use is largely a legalistic matter, and metric units have been legal in Canada for many more years than most readers of CARET have been living. The real issues concern, not metrication, but standardization, a matter which has intensely emotive, economic and political overtones. By the time this issue of CARET is published, we shall have some idea as to whether the Celsius degree will be, perhaps grudgingly, accepted; and as for other common units, most of us can recognize a metre and its one-hundredth part, the centimetre (not meter, by the way); the kilogram is now moderately familiar to the purchaser of HIGHLINER fishcakes {the housespousf??); and, if he has the cash, the lush can buy a litre of wine, (the 'large' bottle), to slake his insatiable thirst. Electricity, of c:ourse, has always been billed in metric unit~;. 1 I No - it is not the units that constitute the problem, it is the standards that we have to worry about. In this context, I do not mean the kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in the basement of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at Sevres in France. I mean the hundred grams of butter and the half-litre of lighter fluid; I also mean the screw that has one thread per millimetre and the cookie tray that is 25 by 50 centimetres. Confused? You may well be. Yet, a shift in the units of measurement gives us a glorious chance to standardize, or to use a more appropriate word - rationalize all kinds of products. ( Rationalize comes from the same root as ratio, meaning that human reasoning is at work, which is a nice put-down for manufacturers who do not rationalize!) Metrication and rationalization, though loosely connected are not entirely the same thing. To illustrate: take the time to look on the grocery shelves and see if you can spot the rationalized sardine can, as distinguished from the unrationalized one containing 127 grams. Why 127? Is it a coincidence that 127 is a prime number? What is the cost per unit weight (mass to the cognoscente) of 127 grams of sardines at 23','t? Get the point? Why not 125 (to divide by 125, multiply by 8 and divide by 1,000 - cost per kilogram, $1.84); or better still, why not 200 grams? To the everlasting credit of the manufacturers producing them, some consumer products are being rationalized on a voluntary basis. But there is in Canada, so far as I know, no enforcing legislation (except in certain special cases) specifying the normal si.z:es of packaged products; so that prod~cers are free to pack whatever weight of, say, breakfast cereal they think will have t~ e most cost-effective consumer impact, whatever that may mean! In Europe standard packages are the rule rather than the exception. All who think that the voluntary standardization of consumer products 1 �22. will be adhered to in Canada by multinational corporations, stand in the corner. There is another side to the question; and for products that manufacturers purchase (it is often forgotten that manufacturers are also consumers) the incentive for standardization is quite strong. Perhaps you service your own car? How many screwdrivers and wrenches do you need - how often do you have to make a new thread in an old hole (or use bailing wire, heaven help you) because you cannot get a screw to fit? You may be interested to know that the average vehicle uses about 3500 - yes, three thousand five hundred fasteners; and for a staggering statistic, how about the eleven to twelve thousand different fasteners used in the military hardware of the western world? By standardization, this huge inventory of nuts and bolts could be cut in half, with significant increase in the efficiency of the automotive trade. The chances of a standardization scheme sticking in a manufacturing chain are about fifty-fifty. Some schemes that al ready exist are very successful; all 35 millimetre films fit virtually all 35 millimetre cameras: some schemes have never quite made it so that typewriter ribbons and video tapes come in almost as many specifications as there are ·machines. Why are standardization schemes only moderately successful? I can identify three, though there are obviously many more than that. The first is what I cal I the foreman's elbow syndrome". (The foremen in dyeing plants long resisted the introduction of thermometers, because their elbows were quite sensitive to deviations from the required temperature.) In other words, let the others change - we've always done it our way, and our way is best". (That is why we had to throw out the perfectly sensible word Centigrade in favour of the misguided Mr. Celsius, a gentleman who got the freezing and boiling points of water inverted.) The second reason concerns the lack of perspicacity of design engineers, architects and suchlike who, faced with an intractable problem involving the fitting of one part to another 11 11 may prefer to take the easy way out and design a new part, rather than adapt the design to use existing standardized parts. Quite often, the new part does not work very well, and a piece of the product falls off. Third, there is the deliberate manufacture of a device designed to reject the product of a competitor. One classic example from World War I was the German rifle which accepted bullets of the other side, but not vice versa. Then, between the wars, there was a spate of razors with special ridges designed to reject al I but one make of blade. Today, we have vacuum cleaners with special bags: other examples will come to mind. There is one aspect of standardization to which my readers and their mentors might give some thought. It is this: how far do we want to go? Is standardization superceding reason? Is there a connection be~ tween the drab frenzy of our lives and the uniformity imposed upon us by our technological culture? Can we build a picturesque village from standard construction units, a poetic forest from standard trees, an exciting year from uniform days? Perhaps I push the argument too far. Here, for a contrasting viewpoint is Walt Whitman: A vast similitude interlocks all All spheres, grown, ungrown, small, large, suns, moon, planets, All distances of place, however wide, All distances of time, all inanimate forms, All souls, all living bodies though they be ever so, different, or in different worlds, All gaseous, watery, vegetable, mineral processes, the fishes, the brutes, All nations, colors, barbarisms, civilizations, languages All identities that have existed or may exist on this globe, or any globe All lives and deaths, all the past, present, future, This vast similitude spans them, and has always spann'd, And shall forever span them and compactly hold and enclose them. From "On the Beach at Night Alone" �HO ANY VILLAGERS? 23. an exercise in ma ematical geography by: Mr. Robert S. Dilley Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. A problem that frequently faces geographers is that of demonstrating relationships among a number of variables. It is sometimes possible to study geographical interactions under laboratory conditions: for example, glaciologists can use refrigerators to subject rocks to various kinds of freeze-thaw action. The human geographer has greater problems, in that he can observe people (though often with difficulty) but not experiment with them. A physical geographer who wants to know how flooding affects soil texture can pour water onto plots of land to his heart's content. A human geographer interested in the effect of flooding on rural communities will scarcely be popular if he opens the dikes to study the results. Moreover, real-world geographical situations, especially those involving people, usually comprise a complex series of influences, each interacting with the others. To explain this in relatively simple terms, to show how changing one variable in a given system can have repercussions throughout the system, is difficult when one cannot demonstrate the actual processes at work. To overcome this, geographers have increasingly turned to mathematics to provide models of the real world with which they can experiment. Some of these models are complicated, requiring computers to work them out. Others are much simpler, but not necessarily less illuminating for that. As an example, consider the problem of demonstrating the relationship between agricultural land, farming techniques and village size in primitive economies. What limits the size of a simple agricultural village? What happens if population grows, if new methods are introduced, if the climate changes? Anyone can see that population is likely to be higher on good land worked with advanced techniques; but how much higher? A simple model can help answer these questions by showing how the various physical and cultural features interrelate. Consider a simple, permanent agricultural village, operating as a closed system (i.e. no food is brought in from outside and none is sent elsewhere, the usual situation in undeveloped economies where local selfsufficiency is the rule. Assume, for convenience, that the villagers are entirely dependent on crop production for food. How big can that village grow? First, we have to consider how much land the vi II age has cM:1ilable. Even if it is the only settlement for a long way around, it cannot grow crops al I over that area. The farmer has to walk out to his fields in the morning, perform a full day's work, and return at night to the village. If his land is too far away he will be spending too much precious daylight in travelling. In many societies (for example, among the lnqians of North America before European colonisation) inter-village raiding was common, and field labourers were reluctant to work far from the stockade especially when cultivation was performed by the women. We can say, therefore, that the territory available to a village is roughly circular, with the radius a reasonable walking distance ( D) from the settlement and an area 11'D 2. However, not all of this area will be suitable for agriculture. Parts may be too wet, other parts too dry. Some sections may be excessively stony, or too steep, or kept under trees for firewood. Part will be occupied by the village itself. We must therefore introduce the term U for usable fraction, such that if three-quarters of the territory is usable then U = 0.75. The actual cultivable area thus becomes (,rU 2 ) (U). But under primitive conditions this area cannot be cultivated permanently. Simple agriculturalists are rarely familiar with the use of fertilisers or crop-rotation. Their practice is to grow crops on the same patch of land until, after a year or two or three, the soil is exhausted of its useful minerals and nutriments and the farmers have to go �24. on to another patch, leaving the first to rest and slowly rebuild its fertility. In time they can come back and cultivate it once more. Thus we have to introduce another factor, R, which stands for rotation, or the fraction of the total time that a given piece of land can be cultivated. Thus, if any one patch of land can be cultivated for one year in ten, or five years in fifty, then R = 0.1. The total possible area actually under crops in any one year is therefore (1'D 2 } (U} (R). To determine potential population we then need to know how much land is needed to support one person or, more conveniently, one family (it is easier to estimate the number of families in a village from the number of houses than to discover the average size of each family}. If we call the area under crops necessary to feed one family At, then the maximum possible population for the village (remembering that no other food supply is available} is clearly the total possible area under crops in any one year, (,1'0 2 ) (U) (R), divided by the area needed for each family, At. Denoting maximum population (in families) by Pt we can then express our model as (i) At This simple little formula then enables us to see how these factors interract with village size. Take, for example, a settlement where the maximum distance a farmer is prepared to walk to his fields is 2 km. (1¼ miles), where half the land is usable for agriculture, where crops are grown on each patch one year in ten and 2 ha. (5 c1cres} are needed to support one family: all reasonable figures. In that case p = {712 2 ) (0.5) (0.1) = 31,;4 (ii) t 0.02 The village could thus grow to a little over 30 families. (Note that the denominator has to be written as 0.02 square kilometers, rather than 2 hectares, to be in the same unit as D2. Try working that out with miles and acres and you become an instant convert to metrication). The importance of travel-to-work can easily be illustrated. If the villagers become reluctant to move more than 1 km. from their homes, owing to frequent raids, hungry tigers or laziness, then the formula reads Pt = (?f12) (0.5) (0.1) = 7.85 0.02 (iii) Halving the distance travel led thus reduces village size to less than 8 families. On the other hand, if the villagers in (ii) begin to use some fertiliser they may be able to cultivate their patches twice as long before moving on. This will increase R, and the formula will read p = ~22) (0.5) (0.2) = 62 8 (iv) t 0.02 • allowing a doubling of population. Alternatively, we can look at it another way and ask what happens to the vii lage in (ii} if the population increases beyond 31 families? Obviously, if Pt> 31.4 then At must · be reduced, giving • everyone less to eat; or R must be increased, giving the soil insufficient time to recover and leading to disastrous soil exhaustion; or U or D must be increased, which may not be possible. Faced with population growth, therefore, village (ii) must starve, change its ways, or send the surplus population off to start a new village. We can use this model to observe other factors than population. Take, in this instance, a village of 35 families, accustomed to travelling up to 1.75 km. to their fields, using three-fifths of the land and resting each patch seven years for each year of cultivation. How much land is available for each farmer? We know from (i} that (?1'1.752) (0.6) (0.125) = (v) 35 At Therefore • At = (11'1.752)(~:)(0.125) = 0.0206km2(vi) or fractionally over 2 hectares. Further sophistication could be introduced. At could be varied to include food produced from pastoralism, which would probably involve modification of D, (people usually being willing to travel further to their stock than to their crops), of U, (land unsuitable for cropping may be grazed}, and of R, (pasture needing a different resting cycle). If a number of villages occupy an area and claim all the land, then the territory of each may be calculated without reference to ,rD 2 , and so on. The model is clearly too simple to be applied directly for research on the real world; it gives only potential and not actual populations. It can, however, be (continued page 35) �QUALITY or UANTITY: the by: Dr. Paul Barclay-Estrup Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. (from an address given to the Calgary Teachers Convention in February 1974.) Ten years ago, when someone said that our society and possibly our planet was heading for a serious crisis, the warning was either ignored or judged alarmist by most people. Five years ago, a similar pronouncement was taken into consideration, at least by more thoughtful people, but today perhaps . even a majority of people are considering a crisis as a real prospect. Considering is the key word here, because far from a majority yet believe that there is a serious crisis; even fewer are proposing solutions, and virtually no preventative action is being taken. We are faced with a refusal of consciousness. Many intelligent people still pretend that "nine to five" is the real world, and that talk of disaster is a fad or fashion, idle chatter, the invention of TV, a communist plot, or a plot of vested interests. It is possible that the doom and gloom statistics are al I misleading, and some very qualified people are of this opinion. The doomsters draw Ii nes on graphs and extend them into the future, a method which has produced some really frightening predictions. For example, if the present birth rate continues, by the year 6084 solid waves of people will be expanding away from earth into the universe at the speed of light. It's true that doomsters have sometimes been proven wrong. One sceptic in Britain has pointed out that if the use of horses had continued to increase in Britain as much after 1870 as it did between 1800 and 1870, then by 1970 the entire surface of the earth would have been six feet deep in horse manure. But sceptics aside, many people, especially professional ecologists, are firmly convinced that there is a potential catastrophe both for mankind and for most life on this planet, if changes are not instituted soon. ■ oder■ dile 25. a The root cause of this impending catastrophe is easy enough to identify: Too Many People. Too Many People, in Too Little Space, with Too Few Resources. What is the present status of the world's population? This year, 1974, is World Population Year. At last, the United Nations has officially recognized that there is a population problem. "74 in '74" could be the slogan, for at the end of this year there will be 74 million more people than there were in the begining of the year. That's over 200,000 more people each day of the year. China now has over 800,000,000 people and India almost 600,000,000, and half of this large number are children under 18. In 1975 the population of the earth will be four billion. When I graduated from high school in 1948, it was considerably less than three billion. If the present rate of growth continues, by the year 2074 there will be 30 billion people. If somehow we could immediately reduce the increase to replacement level (two children per family), there would still be over six billion people by 2050. If somehow we could limit families to only one child, it would take another 30 years before the population of the earth would stop increasing! Malthus made two predictions: one, that there would be world over-population, and two, that this would be followed by mass deaths by starvation. His first prediction has come true. We must do everything we can to ensure that the second prediction does not come true as wel I. What can we do? The answer is simple enough: first, we stop the growth, and then we reduce the population to a level that can be maintained at a high standard of living and contentment without removing the capital resources of this planet. The trouble with simple solutions is that they tend to be full of unknown variables. Is man a truly reasoning being, or is he �26. primarily controlled by basic biological instincts and reactions? What sort of situation makes man content? What is a "reasonable" standard of living? There is no way in which the present world population of almost four billion can be brought even close to present Canadian living standards. Each Canadian uses over 20 times as much total resources per year as an average citizen of India. We use 30 times as much sugar and over 50 times as much energy. It is not the poor, but the rich of this world who are threatening the survival of Spaceship Earth. So population must be reduced to a size which will suit the resources of our planet. What size is that? We do not know. This question must be answered by agriculturalists, foresters, geographers and ecologists. A worldwide study of resources and consumption trends is urgently required. (Some population proposals have already been made by ecologists. One estimate for maximum population in the U.S. is 30 to 50 million - less than ¼ of the present U.S. population - which if extended to Canada would mean a maximum of three to five million in this country!) What happens if we continue uninterrupted growth? We luckier people in the "have" countries may be able to develop some kind of huge multi-storied cities. Perhaps our technology will provide space and food. What might the future .hold, then, for us? Food for us looks O.K., at least in quantity. Canada, New Zea1and, Australia and Argentina are the last net food exporting countries (although in 1969, for the first time, low grain exports meant that even we in Canada imported more food in dollars than we exported). In Canada, we produce enough food to feed about 50 million people. So we have enough quantity for perhaps the next 50 years - assuming of course that other people who are in short supply don't take it away from us. Quality? It doesn't look quite so good. Meat and fish supplies will continue to decrease, and prices will keep on rising. Many imported luxury foods will become scarce or very expensive as populations in tropical areas increase. For example, coffee, tea, spices, tropical fruit and even tomatoes are threatened. (Did you know that Canadians drink three times as much tea per capita as Americans, and that we import more fresh tomatoes per capita than any other nation? All tea and most tomatoes are imported.) We may or may not like the North American car-culture, but we must live with it, anyway. A change in life-style here looks inevitable: smaller cars, fewer long trips, fewer week-ends away from the city, slower transport and more traffic problems. What about interpersonal relationships? As people move frequently, from country to city or from city to city, many relationships are strained or broken. The result is galloping social instability and an alarming increase in, for example, the number of runaway children: 600,000 in the U.S. in 1973. The Canadian rate is likely to be substantially lower (perhaps 30,000), but still significant. In 1968, divorce rates in Canada were 60 per 100,000 of population and 300 per 100,000 in the U.S. Will we duplicate the U.S. rate, now five times our own, in the future? At levels less basic than the family level work, social, school levels - antagonism and stress are commonplace. Hierarchies and social systems are made unstable by deliberate policies of transferring individuals. Status and position are frequently ephemeral and insecure, driving the individual to greater efforts to achieve them. There are plenty of other products of unrestricted growth - air pollution, lead, cadmium and mercury poisoning, alcoholism, cancer, crime and drug rates, the possibility of biological or nuclear war - to worry about, too. And what about natural �27. plant and animal communities? Hundreds of bird and mammal species are in danger of extinction. Whole ecosystems the world over are being threatened. It is quite certain that the destruction of plant systems alone will result in the extinction of at least 10,000 species in the next 20 to 30 • years. Who cares? Many people are concerned about the deteriorating quality of our lives, but too often they are not our leading politicians. Politicians did not arouse the world to the population and environmental crisis, and if left to themselves, they will not generate the .necessary action. It is up to you, the individual citizen. Write letters to your M.P. and M. L.A. Attend political meetings; organize all-party symposia with the aim of getting individual politicians to take a definite stand. Withdraw support from a politician who goes back on his word on the issues involved. Form a non-partisan pressure group -' people interested in environmental quality are not limited to any one party - and take on one problem at a time. Try to avoid confrontations and hardened posi- tions that lead to useless deadlocks. Even one or two persistent and dedicated individuals can be enough to bring and keep an issue before the general public. Most of our problems can be solved. We can have both quantity and quality in our lives - but only if the major problem of over-population is treated. Treatment of symptoms such as fuel shortages and pollution are otherwise meaningless and perhaps even detrimental in the long term. If our government will institute a rational population program - and years are involved - surely we will all do everything we can to save our resources and try to help those in great need. But I, for one, wi II do very Httle to support stop-gap policies that can only lead to greater shortages and less quality in the future. Without such a new trend we might as well enjoy life to the full. Be daring: drive an eight cylinder, 450 horsepower car. Heat your house to 75 degrees. Burn your Christmas lights 12 months of the year. In the words of Paul Erhlich, "If you are sailing on the Titanic, you might as wen go first class." SOLUTIONS TO PREVIOUS PUZZLES: UNITS THE AVIARY �FLIERS, STINGERS AND BITERS ACROSS 1. Groups of fliers, stingers and biters (6,8) 7. The family of 17 down is nothing if not geometric (5) 9. The butterfly that commands a vessel (7) 10. A steady worker (6) 11. This wasp is not necessarily Australian, mate (6) 13. A small arachnid associated with widows (4) 14. A glimpse is a chirp (4) 15. If all insects survived, they would swiftly do this to our world (6) 18. A dull fellow, found somewhat disheveled in a laundry (6) 19. Ringlike (7) 21. A tiny primitive fly, larger than 13 (5) 22. Are these insects in Sergeant Pepper's Company? (7,7) DOWN 1. They are the epitome of biological control (9,5) 2. Glow worms and Fireflies do it (7) 3. Nobody could call them 5 down: they 14 down (4) 4. The leaf-cutters do this very neatly (6) 5. The grasshopper is typified (5) 6. Small flies that wou Id be usefu I to a hostess before a party if they could only spin what they purport to (6,8) 8. Probably the most revolting insect of all (3,3) 12. A biter, distressing to cattle (6) 14. See 3 down (7) 16. This Indian antelope may be ailing (6) 17. A slow 7 across 20. Hark! If you listen carefully, you can hear a Myrmeleon ! (4) Puzzle by Professor John Hart, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay �Ill I NEED A CAlCU TOR IN UNIVERSITY? by: Professor C. Kent, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. This is a question more and more often directed to university profs these days by high school students, and also by students already in university. The space-age spin-off of micro-electronic circuits has placed high capacity calculators within the economic reach of a lot of people. Even students on limited budgets can strain to afford them, and the manufacturers haven't failed to notice the possibilities in the student market. In the Thunder Bay Sears the other weekend, I was looking over the display of chained-down and otherwise guarded calculators when a proud parent and universityage son arrived to buy a calculator to replace the one he had bought the month before. This month's model offered more functions than last rnonth's. Herein lies a trap. The price of these calculators has been dropping rapidly or, put another way, the capabilities of the calculators available at a fixed price have been rising rapidly. But, they are still expensive toys and keeping up with the Jones' latest hand-held calculator can be expensive. I think the best answer br the university, or university-bound student, thinking of buying a calculator is that it is not necessary to have one to survive in university. University professors try not to impose arbitrary rules on their students, and they don't prevent students who have calculators from using them in class, but they try to devise test and exam problems so that the student with a calculator has no essential advantage over his poorer cousin without one. Of course, if you are going to study engineering, or applied science, there will be a greater opportunity for you to use and profit from your own calculator than if you plan to study math, or physics. Even so, the ready availability of the large scale university computer to students, and the 29. increasing occurrence of mini-computers offer more than adequate opportunity for you to handle these big data processing assignments. At Lakehead University more and more of our first year students are getting heavily involved with the university computer and are learning, along the way, much more useful programming skills than how to punch the buttons on a 3x4 inch keyboard. The New Scientist of February 27, 1975, contains a good article titled The electronic slide-rule comes of age". The economics of the manufacture and marketing of the hand-held micro computers (or calculators) is surveyed, along with a list of the functions available in the various models. That article is well worth reading if you are thinking about buying a calculator, and can get your hands on New Scientist, which is an English magazine. If you can't, here are some highlights. The Hewlett-Packard calculators are the Cadillacs of the species. HP got an early start and has kept ahead of the competition by offering increasingly sophisticated and capable calculators. These range from the (now old-fashioned) HP-21, at about $200 through the super-Cadillac HP65 which sports 20 addressable registers, a 100 step programmable facility, magnetic tape read-in and read-out, user definable keys, and the sporty price of $800-$1000. Our Department owns a HP65 but I notice that it is used far less often than the much simpler Texas Instrument SR50, selling for about $200. Sears sells an instument virtually identical to the SR50, with full transcendental function complement, for a little under $100 when you catch a sale. The New Scientist says that hand-held programmable calculators not unlike the super Cadillac HP65 will appear on the market in mid-1975 for a little over $200. This is typical of the fierce competition now going on to capture the market, especially the student market. 0 �30. As a guide for potential purchasers, New Scientist give a table of the expected costs of the various functions that can be purchased in a 'hand-held', as follows: Functions Price +, -, X, + $20 1~ 5 x2 5 rx sin, cos, tan/Arc Hyperbolic Memo~ Ln x/ex Logx/10x xY x! Degrees/Radians 1r s 20 12 12 10 7 12 5 2.50 2.50 The typical cost breakdown for manufacturing and marketing a calculator selling for $84 is interesting: Integrated circuit ................. 8.50 Semiconductors .................. 1.20 Display ......................... 3.20 Keyboard ....................... 2.40 Case ............................ .50 Misc............................. .50 Rechargable battery ............... 3.20 Charger/A.C. adaptor .............. 2.50 Total parts cost ...........-.... 22.00 Labour ....................... 2.00 Manufacturing cost ............ 24.00 Overhead, marketing cost, man. profit36.00 Factory selling price ........... 60.00 Retai I markup .................. 24.00 Recommended retail price ....... 84.00 The same issue of New Scientist contains ads for the Texas Instrument SR50 ranging in price from $165 (from a "Discount House" in King's Cross, London) to just over $200. It would appear that these calculators can be had for about 20% off suggested retail price, if you know where to look. (Our Department recently bought SR50's for $150 from a Toronto firm). There is apparently still no wholesale "dumping" of the moderately sophisticated scientific type calculators on the market, but the simplest types have recently dropped into the $20 range, and a qreak in price of the others may not be far off. One thing I find disturbingly missing in the published information about the handheld calculators is information about their reliability and durability. An engineer friend recently told me that, if one of these baubles goes awry, forget it. His feeling is that it would cost more to repair than to replace. If his appraisal is correct, and the lifetime doesn't exceed the guarantee period (usually a year from a reliable vendor) then keeping yourself in calculators could be an expensive business. Another consideration for the Northwestern Ontarians could be the "down time" to send a calculator away for repairs if it goes bust, even in_the guarantee period. I have been told that Sears' policy is simply to hand you a new calculator if something goes wrong during their guarantee period. That could be worth investigating but I wonder how often they go through the exercise on essentially new calculators. All in all, your own hand-held calculator really isn't necessary in university, although it can be helpful in professional programs like engineering, or in upper year courses like statistics. Even in a program where a calculator would be handy, it probably isn't really too useful in the first year. It may be later, but the way prices are dropping and in view of the very limited experience people have had with their durability, I think my $200 will stay in the bank for a while yet. If, and when, you do decide to buy your own calculator you will face the decision on how much complexity to buy. The price very directly reflects the complexity and little else. New Scientist suggest that the cost premium you should be willing to pay for a "big name" manufacturer is not over $25, while you can see from the figures above that $25 is the cost of a very few additional functions. Your planned use of the calculator dictates the complexity and price. If you are �31. going to use the device only for simple arithmetic of the balance sheet variety, you can get by with a $20 calculator with +, x, , +. The number of digits on the display should probably be greater than six, but ten is an extravagance. Eight should do nicely. "Floating point" decimal presentation is also unnecessary for simple arithmetic. The next step up in complexity which will be usable will surely include a memory (one register will do) and "floating point". This extra capacity will allow you to cope with most of the calculations in statistics. Squaring, square-root and reciprocal keys would be convenient at this stage but are not really necessary. With a memory register there are simple "algorithms" in the user manuals which allow you to do your own thing with square-roots, cube-roots, etc. The increasing cost of dry cell batteries makes a rechargable calculator battery a wise investment if you intend to make much use of your hand-held. You should easily get one of these calculators for $50-60. Only if you seriously intend to be an engineer, chemist, experimental physicist or econometrician would one of the "electronic slide rule" types with full scientific notation and transcendental functions be likely to be useful. The SR50, or comparable Sears or Eaton's models retail here for $100-$200. SETT ES by: Dr. L.K. Roy, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. The final step up to a programmable job, like the HP55/65, or comparable 'cheapies' to appear, is probably justified only for the serious practicing scientist or engineer. Some upper year students of these disciplines could find them useful, but only if they are "computer nuts" who develop their own procedures and programs for doing often repeated problems, or simply like to experiment with the procedures themselves. Here, however, these students are much better advised to use a mImcomputer or large scale digital, and really get their teeth into a problem. It may be strange to hear, but a math major in university probably will have less use for a hand-held calculator than almost any other type of student except history majors. Finally, a personal prejudice or two. Special purpose calculators, for converting Fahrenheit to Celsius, or Acres to Hectares, are close to useless for the average human being. Unless you plan a career in the weights and measures business converting into and out of metric sizes, save your money. Even a percent key on an otherwise standard calculator is silly. If you can't multiply by 100 you've got no business having that thing in your hand in the first place. AT E E BET 1. The Gold Coin Gambit Three boxes, identical in appearance, are There may not be a sucker born every minute but many people still find plenty of opportunity to lose money on what seems to be a fair bet. In the following examples bets are proposed by a smooth operator (cal I him the Artist) and accepted by a person who tricks himself into believing the bet is a fair one (call him the Mark). placed on a table. One contains 2 gold coins, another contains 2 silver coins, and the last contains one silver coin and one gold coin. Two Gold Coins Two Silver Coins One Gold One Silver �32. A neutral person selects a box at random, opens it, and draws one coin from it. Suppose a gold coin was drawn. The Artist makes the following bet with the Mark: "I bet you even money that the other coin in the box is also gold." The Mark thinks to himself: "The other coin could either be silver or gold. Also, it is obvious that this box is not the box with the 2 silver coins. So this box has an equal chance of either being the box with 2 gold coins or the box with one silver coin and one gold." He concludes that the bet is a fair one. In fact there are two chances in three that the box being considered is the one with the two gold coins! Think of it this way: if the box is the one with a silver coin and a gold coin, there is one chance in two of drawing a gold coin. There are two chances in two of drawing a gold coin from the box with the two gold coins. So once we have the information that a gold coin was indeed drawn, the box with the two gold coins becomes twice as probable as the box with one silver and one gold coin. 2. The Birthday Booby-Trap The Artist and the Mark attend a party at which a total of 40 people are present. The Artist bets that at least two people in the room will have the same birthday. The Mark happily accepts the bet since there are only 40 people in the room and 365 possible birthdays. Actually, the odds are not at all in the Mark's favour. Pick one person and determine his birthday. The next person selected has 364 other choices of birthday, so the probability that the two do not have the same birthday is 364/365. The third person selected still has 363 other choices of birthday so that the probability of the three having different birthdays is 364/365 times 363/365. For the forty people, the probability of none having the same birthday is a product of 39 fractions (364) (363) (362) ... (326) = 0.109 365 365 365 365 So the Mark has about one chance in 10 of winning. In fact the breakeven point occurs when there are only 23 people present in which case the Mark's probability of winning is 0.493. 3.. The Odd-Numbered Dice The Artist presents the Mark with 4 dice. Blue l9m9l91 Green 13131111 White Red The Mark is invited to choose any one of the 4 dice, after which the Artist will choose one of the remaining 3 dice. Both persons will roll their dice and the person who rolls the highest number will win. The Mark thinks to himself: "Obviously one of these dice is a better choice than the others. As soon as I determine which it is, I will begin to make some money." Suppose the Mark chooses the red die since it has the highest number (13). The Artist would choose the green die and would have probability 2/3 of winning. Green 7 5 5 5 Red 5 13 13 7 7 7 7 7 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X -- --- -- --- -- -- -- -- In the above table an X indicates a win for the Artist. Of the 36 possible combinations of green-red values, the Artist wins 24 of them. After losing for a while the Mark may switch to the green die. As soon as he does, the Artist picks the blue die. �33. Blue 1 7 7 7 Green 7 7 7 1 -- --- -- -- -- AN ANALYSIS OF THE GAME OF KENO 9 9 9 9 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Again, 24 of 36 possible blue-green combinations mean a win for the Artist When the Mark switches to blue, the Artist switches to white. White 3 Blue 1 1 9 9 9 9 3 3 11 11 11 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ----- Again, 24 of 36 white-blue combinations favour the Artist. The Mark begins to reason as follows: "White beats blue, blue beats green, green beats red. So white beats everything. I'll choose white and eventually I 'II make a fortune." The Artist chooses red. Red 3 3 3 White 11 11 11 5 X .x X X X X X X X X X X X X -- -- ---- X X X X X X -- -- -- The game of Keno is played in Las Vegas as follows: The player chooses 8 of the numbers 1 through 80. Then 20 numbers are drawn at random from the number 1 through 80. If among these 20 numbers the player has chosen 5, 6, 7 or 8 correctly he wins $5, $50, $1,100, $12,500 respectively. The player pays $1 to play. 0 ~ ~ , ways of ran20 0 domly choosing the 20 numbers. There are There are{ {~)= ~! ~~-x) matching )= p{x> --- ,),( Again, 24 of 36 red-white combinations mean a loss for the Mark. The Mark's mistake is in choosing which die he wants to use first. Once the Mark has chosen, the Artist can make his choice so that he will win 2 tosses out of 3. ways of x of these 20 8 selections and player's _ (~X 2l~) - (~g) Thus the probability of winning $5 is 5 13 13 :,X ,,'•X,'-,X the ) = 721 ways of the re( 72-x {20-x) ! (52+x) ! 20 maining (20-x) numbers not matching. So the probability of x matching numbers is p(5) 5 -- 5 by: Dr. l.K. Roy, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay. -- (:)(;~) l ) = .01s3 of winning $50 is p{6) (:)(~~) = ( ~g) =.0024 of winning $1,100 is p{7) = mm) =.00016 (~g) and of winning $12,500 is p{8) = men (~g) = 000004 • The expected winnings of a player, each time he plays is 5 p(5) + 50 p(6) + 1100 p(7) + 1250 p(8) = 5(.0183) + 50(.0024) + 1100(.00016) + 12500(.000004) 0.4375 dollars. �34_ IS THE MIND A MATERIAL OBJECT? ---·------ ~- - -- OR WHY DOES GLASS SHATTER? by: Dr. J. Douglas Rabb, lakehead University, Thunder Bay. Can dispositions be causes? This rather obscure question is, I believe, one of the most important unresolved issues in con- temporary philosophy. Not only does the truth of two radically different accounts of mind and/or mental events depend on the answer to this question; but this problem is also at the basis of two quite different views of the nature of scientific explanation. The two accounts of mind are represented on the one hand by Gilbert Ryle's behaviouristic analysis in The Concept of Mind and on the other hand by D.M. Armstrong's central-state materialism as presented in A Materialist Theory of Mind. The behaviourist claims that words which seem to refer to so cal led mental events do not in fact, refer to events at all. Rather they signify that the organism is liable or disposed to display certain sorts of behaviour. So, for example, to believe that it is raining is not to entertain the thought that it is raining, it is simply to have a tendency to wear a coat if one goes out, to have no inclination to wash the car or water the garden, to be disposed to answer in the affirmative if asked if it is raining and so forth. The central state materialist on the other hand does not deny that there may wel I be events which we describe as mental. However, the materialist claims that these events are, in actual fact, events occuring in the brain or central nervous system. The materialist would argue against the behaviourist that there must be a state of the central nervous system which causes the organism to be disposed to behave in the way it does. Ryle, the behaviourist, seems to hold a Phenomenalist or Operationalist position concerning scientific explanation whereas Armstrong is a proclaimed Realist. For example, Ryle states that: When we describe glass as brittle or sugar as soluble, we are using dispositional concepts, the logical force of which is this. The brittleness of glass does not consist in the fact that it is at a given moment actually being shivered. It may be brittle without ever being shivered. To say that it is brittle is to say that if it ever is, or ever had been struck or strained, it would fly, or would have flown into fragments. To say that sugar is soluble is to say that it would dissolve, or would have dissolved if immersed in water. 1 On the other hand Armstrong argues that: . . . in asserting that a certain piece of glass is brittle, for instance, we are ipso facto asserting that it is in a certain non-dispositional state which disposes it to shatter and fly apart in a wide variety of circumstances. . .. The Realist view gains some support from ordinary language, where we often seem to identify a disposition and its 'categorical basis'. ('It has been found that brittleness is a certain sort of molecular pattern in the material. ')2 Withc-_crucial issues in both the Philosophy of Mind and the Philosophy of Science hanging in the balance, it is little wonder that the question 'Can dispositions be causes?' has generated such vigorous debate. 3 In this paper I wish to propose a compromise which, I hope, will be acceptable to both sides of this important dispute. I begin with the following illustration. An Enlightening Crash Suppose I raise my glass of wine and propose a toast to Professors Armstrong, Ryle and their respective followers in appreciation of their valiant efforts to settle this important question. Suppose further that, as is the custom in proposing such toasts, after downing the wine I throw the glass with considerable force into the fireplace and the glass, as is its custom, shatters. This very brief story allows me to generate a seri~s of question which, I hope, will be illuminating. The first question is: 01 Why did the glass break (shatter)? �35. The most obvious and answer to question 0 1 is: straight-forward A 1 Because it hit the hearth with considerable force. Answer A 1 , however, generates two further sorts of questions which I will class with obvious bias, as interesting and uninteresting. To state the uninteresting one first: U02 Why did the glass hit the hearth with considerable force? It should be noted, of course, that U02 is only uninteresting considering our present purposes. It might well, in other contexts, lead to some very interesting questions in the Philosophy of Action as well as to some intriguing sociological and psychological ones about certain drinking habits. Note also that the subscript '2' in these questions is intended only to indicate that they are in response to the answer to a previous question, viz., '0 1 '. The interesting question raised by A 1 is this: I02 Why did the glass break when it hit the hearth with considerable force? The straight-forward answer to question 102 is simply: A 2 Because it is fragile (brittle). However, answer A 2 also generates two further kinds of questions which I shall again class as interesting and uninteresting. First the uninteresting question: The sense in which 103 is a different question from U0 3 , and the sense in which I interpret it, is that in which it is a conceptual question. In most cases it would only be asked by someone who did not know the meaning of the English words "brittle" and "fragile". The Oxford English Dictionary defines "brittle", for example, as "liable to break'', and once this definition has been understood, question 103 has been answered and rendered pointless. Note that answering 103 does not., of course, render U03 pointless. It should be equally obvious that no answer to U03 could possibly serve as an adequate answer to 103 . In conclusion it should be noted that we may wel I be tempted to raise question I 03 in response to some of the more technical answers to U03 . However such a temptation should not be surprising for as has been wisely observed: The theoretically interesting category-mistakes are made by people who are perfectly competent to apply concepts, at least in situations with which they are familiar, but are still liable in their abstract thinking to allocate those concepts to logical types to which they do not belong. 4 Footnotes 1. G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind, (London, 1949), p.43 UQ3 Why is it fragile? or What makes it fragile? 2. O.M. Armstrong, A Materialist Theory of Mind, (London, 1968), p.86. Question U0 3 is a question for the physicist and any answer to it would likely make reference to the molecular pattern of the glass etc., as Armstrong has noted in the quotation cited above. However the philosophically significant question raised by answer A 2 is of quite a different sort: 3. See for example: R. Squires, "Are Dispositions Causes?", Analysis, Dec., 1968. D.M. Armstrong, "Dispositions Are Causes", Analysis, Oct., 1969. R. Squires, "Are Dispositions Lost Causes?" Analysis, Oct., 1970. IQ3 Yes I know it was brittle but why did it break when it hit the hearth with considerable force? or Why do fragile things shatter when hit with considerable force? Admittedly one way of interpreting question 103 is simply as an oblique way of asking U0 3 . But such an interpretation would be neither interesting nor instructive. 4. Op. cit. The Concept of Mind, p. 17. HOW MANY VILLAGERS? ..... (from p. 24) used as a check on improbable claims for village sizes or food production, past or present. Best of all, it is a useful teaching device, showing clearly and simply the interrelatedness of the physical environment, human skills and population. �36. by: Dr. Brian A.M. Phillips lakehead University, Thunder Bay. Somewhere between the ti me of the historic voyages of discovery and the present, it has become firmly fixed in people's minds that Geography is al I about longest rivers and highest mountains, and that geographers spend their time colouring-in maps. There is often a grain of truth in the most distorted views, and in the process of persuing their long claimed interest in spatial correlations of criteria of, on, or above the earth's surface Geographers frequently use a variety of forms of visual display, collectively termed 'maps'. Cartography is considered by most to be the science of the preparation of all types of maps, plans, charts and statistical dia- grams. In its widest definition this would include every operation from the initial surveying to the design drafting and final printing. However, a more limited viewpoint tends to focus attention on the maps themselves, and examines them as useful devices for the display, comparison and analysis of spatially disposed data of all kinds. Any data which are arranged in space can be mapped whether they be 'solid' visible data such as elevation or population, or whether they be less tangible data, such as recreation potential or mental distance. Despite an enthusiastic but unfortunate student who once concluded an essay on the use of maps by stating that 0 The Geographer has been blessed with a mighty tool which he should learn to use to its fullest extent", it is not only geographers who use maps, but also any persons whose interests involve spatial relationships. A biologist may map a single cell; an engineer may map the stress in a length of steel, a sociologist may map the pattern of crime in a city; a novelist may map the imaginary land in which his characters move. So what are maps? One way of considering maps is to think of them as 'thematic' (an adjective derived from the noun "theme") displays. Whereas a conventional air photograph faithfully records every object visible within the field of view of the camera without selection, a map portrays a selection of criteria. As such it is emphasizing some criteria to the exclusion of others, and is therefore 'thematic'. Furthermore, within the scales in which maps are commonly drafted and reproduced, it is often not feasible to map every single item of a selected criterion. If one had the task of mapping individual political affiliation in a residential area, one would seek a representative sample of households from which to obtain data. Hence, a map is not only thematic, but is a visual transformation (by cartographic methods) of data which are a subset of the possible available data. Similarly, a map is itself a subset of a set or 'Supermap', which is all that can possibly be mapped. While the map portrays data in pictorial form it serves, in effect, as a storage device for those data. Hence agricultural statistics may be stored both as tabulated figures and as a series of thematic maps. Since, in very many cases, the data sample is temporal, that i_s, representative of one moment in time, the map also serves the function of an historical document. Indeed, unless the delay between data collection and map production is very small, the very first copy of a new map may stil I be an 'historical document' if the criteria with which it is concerned are dynamic. A map of occupied dwellings in an urban area may only represent the real situation for less than a day. While this may seem to be a negative element, advantages are derived from the sequential nature of many maps. A series of maps of the distribution of the same criteria in the same area at specific points in time may be examined in sequence. The historical nature of each map �37. is the basis of comparative analysis, and the changing pattern of the dynamic variables can be discerned. A most dramatic visual display of urban growth may be obtained by examining a sequence of maps of five year intervals and filming each for a few seconds in turn. The resulting short film will demonstrate the 'amoeboid' growth of suburbia in a manner greatly more appealing and effective than the examination of tables of population or housing statistics. A map may serve as a data-storage device, as an historical document and as a part of a sequential series. To retrieve those data requires a further transformation, that of map interpretation. Map interpretation might be described as an art, an ability gained by experience rather than by learning alone. However, though a map interpreter may be highly skilled, data will only be retrieved from a map if that map clearly and unambiguously portrays that which is intended. The premap decisions to be made by a cartographer are many and difficult, for they require a truly interdisciplinary understanding. Not only must he fully appreciate the business of mapping, but he must fully understand the spatial processes governing the criteria that are to be mapped, and the manner by which a map reader gains information from a map. Ideally, a well designed map will transfer to the interpreter all the data put into it, and also generate fresh ideas. Such a map is said to have a high 'map transfer function'. Problems often arise in the matter of map design. However attractivelooking and skilfully-drawn is a map, unless it rapidly and unambiguously transmits its data at an equivalent or greater rate than the initial form of the raw data would have done, its function is utterly lost. Our texts and news media are full of pretty maps which are far more difficult to understand than the original raw data which they purport to represent visually. Designing maps involves an understanding of some psychophysical phenomena, and also involves one with the limitations of cartographic language. For example, on this page the writer can control the order in which bits of information are transmitted to the reader, since it is known that the symbols used (the groups of letters or words) will be read in a particular and continuous manner (i.e. left to right, top to bottom in Canada). However, the map designer has very little control on the order in which the cartographic language (point, line and area symbols) will be read, since one cannot foretell at which point within the map boundary the reader will look first, nor which point might be viewed next, and so on. The human eye scans a visual display in a series of foveal fixations. During any one fixation the brain receives data from the central part of the field of view (the fovea) which it appears to concentrate upon, but it also simultaneously receives data from the remaining part of the field of view (the extra-foveal area). Thus, a single item of information may be observed only once foveal ly, but may be reinforced extrafoveally several times during adjacent fixations. While ttie eye is capable of receivin_g about three million bits of information a second, the brain can only account consciously for about sixteen bits per second. Our brains perform the incredible task of data reduction. The efficiency with which this task is achieved is governed partly by the ability to class data and to link them to familiar knowledge, or by the ability to reject and ignore them. These processes take time, and depend ultimately upon the perceptual ability of the observer. The processes of visual search are the subject of much research, but the application of such research to map design has only recently been recognized. For example, in tests in which subjects have been asked to locate a specific target within a display of a variety of unalike and similarlooking targets, the results indicate that some commonly used map techniques are ineffective. Results show, for example, that search time is least when the target is discriminated by colour, and greatest when �38. shape alone is the discriminating factor. Hence, it is found easier to locate a red target in a display of targets of several colours than to locate a circle in a display of targets of several shapes. It is also discovered that it takes longer for the brain to reject similar looking targets than to reject unalike targets. Suppose a map has one hundred and twenty black targets (e.g. symbols) one of which was the target to be located. Visual search time would be x seconds (case A). To find the same target in a display of sixty black targets predictably takes %x seconds (case 8). However, to find the same black target in a display of sixty red targets and sixty black targets (case C) will be found to take more than %x seconds, but considerably less than x seconds, though the total number of targets was the same as in case A. The reason for this is that the brain rapidly rejects or filters out the non targets (red) and less rapidly matches and rejects the remaining fifty-nine similar targets. In view of the common use of differences in size and shape of symbols on maps rather than differences in colour, this type of research could herald some radical changes in future map design techniques. At this point it is seen that "colouring-in maps" is a far too simple view of the geographer's task. In the words of one eminent cartographer .,,Whoever has a knowledge of cartography is convinced that it is more difficult to compile a good map than it is to write a good book. In the latter situation one does not need seriously to torment himself with precision because where ideas fail it is easy to shirk obstacles by the skilful use of words." Raisz - 1962. Problems of map design are by no means the only ones facing today's cartographer. We are in the midst of a quiet but rapid cartographic revolution, largely because our ability to collect data has outstripped conventional methods of storing, displaying, retrieving and analysing them. The long standing conventional topographic map, often printed about two to five years after initial survey and infrequently updated, is now simply insufficient for the planner concerned with the rapidly changing situation in our major population areas. Quantities of data now being made available to those responsible for planning and managing our natural and urban environments can no longer be transformed into visual form by manual drafting at a rate sufficient to keep up with supply. Furthermore, people are increasingly concerned both with more complex and less directly derived data. Pre-map statistical processing of large volumes of data is best handled by computers, and the 1970's are likely to be known as the decade of computer mapping. Although the map draftsman is by no means obsolete, anyone claiming to be interested in dynamic patterns of spatially arranged data now uses computer generated maps. Experimental maps of many kinds are now providing exciting and challenging new approaches to mapping, and the changing face of modern cartographic methods is so rapid that it is hard for an individual to keep pace with it. Discussion of specific map types and map related problems would be best reserved for further short papers. Meanwhile,, where appropriate, the computer may be given the task of colouring-in and analysing some maps. True or False? genome: one complete set of chromosomes, a chromosome complement. Ordinarily, a gamete has one genome (is haploid), a zygote has two (is diploid). gnome: in folklore, a tiny subterranean creature said to be guardian of hidden treasures. One letter does make a lot of difference! Which of these are used synonymously, and what is the preferable spelling: glycerine, glycerol, glycine, glycinol, glycol, xylene, xylol? �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. "CARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E 1 �PLEAS L E ABOUT FOR OTHERS TO READ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 5 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 5, May 1975. Articles on a variety of topics: Letters to the Editor Scholarships Pressing plants and studying the dried specimens Dr. A N Hughe's time spent in Thailand to study chemistry Asbestos contamination of Lake Superior Organisms and adaptation Metrication Mathematical grography Quality or quantity, study of too many people with too little space and resources and predictions for the future 2074 Calculators in university Cartography Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-05 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/f78412c6d9967dd97af9dc06237b5819.pdf 9462ae6fed8d75c659d509d3930886d6 PDF Text Text LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW ~ VOLUME 1 I , I 1 NUMBER 4 .50 c ts �r t A EHEAD UNIVERSIT S IE E E IE incorporating LAKEHEAD UNNERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CONTENTS VOLUME 1, NUMBER 4, January 1975 EDITOR Dr. G. Harvais Lakehead University ASSOCIATE EDITOR Professor B. Spenceley COMPETITION-PRIZES! ... PRIZES! 3 ARE WE ALONE? 4 by Dr. Richard Reis Lakehead University THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE EDITORIAL BOARD Mr. G. Campbell, 9 by Roland Baird Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. LOOKING AHEAD TO THE FUTURE ENERGY FUELS 14 by Frank Jefferies and Ron Scammell Mr. C. Gehrels, Ontario Ministry of Education. Mr. W. Lajoie, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute, Thunder Bay. THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF MATHEMATICIANS 1974 17 by Dr. P. Mah SCIENCE FICTION OR SCIENCE FACT 19 by Professor J.S. Griffith Mr. J. Palko, Fort William Collegiate Institute, Th under Bay. OPEN UNIVERSITY MATHS 20 by Professor C.F. Kent Mr. T. Reynolds, Queen Elizabeth High School, Sioux Lookout. THROWING LIGHT ON THE PAST OF CERAMICS AND BRONZES 24 by Dr. S.J. Fleming Mr. W. Bilbrough, Lakeview High School, Thunder Bay. THE BORA LASKIN SCHOLARSHIPS 28 CARET IS PUBLISHED BY THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO, CANADA. P7B 5E1 Printing: LU. Printshop Design: LU Media Services THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN CARET DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE OPINIONS OF THE EDITOR, THE FACULTY OR THE UNIVERSITY. OUR COVER was inspired from our article "Are we alone?" and was designed by B. Kaminski �2. SCIENCE P. 0G. .,, 'ME ,r LU THE INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROGRAMME FOR SEMESTER SYSTEM STUDENTS Lakehead is designing a new, and to us exciting, first year Science programme. It is time-tabled to meet the special needs of semester students (February to May). The emphasis is on the unity of Science rather than separate traditional subjects. There are few other examples of such a programme, though much interest in this approach has been shown recently. Science departments from across the province of Ontario met and discussed such an integrated programme a few years ago, but no action was taken until now. The Open University in Britain operates an integrated science course and we are examining their films and programmed learning books. Much of modern research involves tackling problems which may require knowledge of everything from Physics to Biology. We feel that a course such as ours can produce better scientists as well as a vigorous new approach to teaching Science. If you want to be an applied scientist it's a good place to start too. Looking forward to seeing you in February! LETTERS TO THE EDITOR July 23, 1974 In a recent publication of CARET (Vol. 1, No. 3) appears an article "A Geological Traverse Across Africa" by John S. Mothersill. On page 37 it states: "In addition, a visit to Olduvai Gorge where Professor Leaky discovered the bones of Zinganthropus and Homo erectus ... which many scientists believe to be direct ancestors of man proved to be most interesting. Work was still being carried out at 'the dig' under the direction of Professor Leaky's widow." I was under the impression Mrs. Leaky was responsible for the actual find as her husband lay ill in the tent. I intend to undermine neither the valuable work of the Late Professor Leaky nor the find itself but feel credit should be given where credit is due. One small step for Women's lib - One large step for mankind. Yours sincerely, M. Susan McBride, Secretary Thunder Bay, Ontario. Dr. Mothersill's reply: Mrs. Leaky, did in fact, physically unearth the first bones of Homo erectus /eakii. However 'the dig' was under the direction of Professor Leaky and he supervised the 'construction' of this species. It is not so much a matter of 'women's lib' but rather the senior scientist receiving credit for a team effort. November 21, 1974 We should like to express our appreciation of Caret. It is a very valuable publication indeed. We have found that articles have a very wide range of interest and use within the school, not confined to the science and mathematics departments, but including History (Archaeological dating, for example) and English as well ... We look forward to further issues ... We feel we cannot afford to miss Caret. Sincerely, M.S. Dunnell, Librarian Thornlea Secondary School, Thornhill, Ontario I wish to thank you all for writing, and to follow this by a brief note on p. 27. - Editor. NOTA BENE Dr. A. D. Booth, President, Lakehead University, has graciously accepted to review for caret a number of books on a variety of topics, in particular Astronomy, Crystallography, Information Theory and Photography. Why not take advantage of this free offer for expert comments? Send in your books or titles NOW. �3. I I• • • • I I II ETITI A couple of years ago, we ran a compet1t1on to name "Caret". The response was gratifying, we had an almost overwhelming number of excellent suggestions, and we always promised ourselves that we would have another of the same as soon as we could build up an adequate prize fund. Well, we now have a little cash put away, and we are going to spend it on an essay competition. The Faculty of Science of Lakehead University is establishing a new programme, called "Energy and Fuel Science" (leading to a B.Sc. degree) which is sure to attract attention from government and industry personnel officers. We want to couple our competition to the new degree. There have been torrents of words written about the energy crisis, but a dispassionate observer would have to conclude that much of the material we see in the newspapers and magazines is inadequate or inaccurate. Perhaps you can do better! If you think so, we want to give you a chance to express your views, and we will reward you handsomely for an essay on the subject. Why not write one for us? Your essay, which should run to about 3,000 words, may cover one of the following topics: 1. Renewable or non-renewable energy resources? 2. Energy versus Environment. 3. Unusual energy sources. 4. Energy in Northwestern Ontario, present and future. 5. Is Canada habitable? There will be two prizes, each covering the first instalment of tuition fees in the Faculty of Science (but not necessarily in the Energy and Fuel Science programme). One prize will go to an entrant from Northwestern Ontario, the other to somebody from outside the region. There will be two consolation prizes of inscribed writing sets to the value of $20.00 each. The competition is open to bona fide high school students, resident in Ontario. It is not open to relatives of staff of the University. Each essay, which becomes the property of the University, must be signed by an officer of the high school, certifying that it is the unassisted work of a student in the school. The decision of the judges is final. Essays may be neatly handwritten or typed by the student. Professionally typed essays are not eligible. Do not forget to include your address. And, the best two essays will be published in Caret. CLOSING DATE 1 JUNE 1975 �4. E E by: Dr. Richard Reis Because our own fate as a species ultimately depends on our willingness to recognize ourselves as evolving creatures in an evolving environment, we cannot afford to wait much longer before beginning to listen seriously for clues to the whereabouts of intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations, locate them, and try to engage them in conversations ... Committee on Science and Public Policy National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) 1972 At a time of political unrest, population explosions, starvation, and pressing domestic and interpersonal problems, talk of trying to communicate with intelligent life beyond the earth may seem at best, the fantasies of a science fiction writer and at worst, a dangerous attempt to divert our attention from important work here at home. I disagree. I cannot imagine an experience more profound for every individual and for the population of the world as a whole than that of communicating with intelligent life in another solar system. Such communication offers the opportunity for us to develop our human potential in ways that will never be possible as long as we remain alone. Once contact is made, our society and our culture will be completely transformed. Any serious examination of possible communication with extraterrestrials must consider three things. First, what are the possibilities of intelligent life existing elsewhere in our galaxy and of our chances of making contact with such an intelligence? Second, what means are available to enable us to understand communication with extraterrestrials? And third, what are the potential, wide-ranging effects such contact would have on us as individuals and on our society as a whole? Let us examine each of these questions in turn. Until recently the argument for the existence of intelligent life in other parts of the galaxy has been based on statistical grounds. Such grounds still provide the strongest basis for building the case for the existence of extraterrestrials. But two important discoveries in the last decade have L E? enabled us to go beyond statistical probabi Iity alone. The first is the almost certain discovery of another solar system in our galaxy, and the second is the discovery in deep space of chemically-stable, life-forming molecules such as carbon dioxide, formaldehyde and water. First let us consider the statistical evidence. Much of the mathematical discussion that fol lows is based on the article: "Is There Intelligent Life Beyond the Earth?" by I.S. Shklovski and Carl Sagan appearing in the Harvard Project Physics Reader, Motion in the Heavens. While it is possible that in the universe life could exist in forms entirely different from anything we know on earth (for example a life form based on silicon rather than carbon) attempts to determine the statistical probability of extraterrestrial life are based on conservative assumptions. While this necessarily limits our scope, it ensures us that our probability is a minimum and thus gives us some idea of the least that we can expect. Let us ask ourselves this question; what are the number of advanced technical civilizations possessing both the interest and capability for interstellar communication? In asking this question we are eliminating all forms of life not sufficiently advanced to want to or be able to communicate with us. We may be eliminating large numbers, but our greatest interest is in those forms of life with which we can communicate. The answer to our question can be expressed by the formula: In this formula N equals the number of civilizations mentioned above, R * is the average rate of star formation, averaged over the lifetime of the galaxy, fp is the fraction of stars with planetary systems, n0 is the average number of planets in each system with environments favourable for the origin of life as we know it, f 1 is the fraction of such planets on which life does develop, fi is �5. the fraction of such inhabited planets on , evidence that, for example, there are any which intelligent life with manipulative • other stars with planets in our galaxy? The abilities arises during the lifetime of the local answer now seems to be yes, because planets sun, fc is the fraction of planets populated shine by reflected light and because even the by intelligent beings on which an advanced nearest stars directly observe a planet orbittechnical civilization arises during the lifeing another star. But if other planets were time of the local sun and L is the lifetime of orbiting another star it might be possible to the technical civilization. observe the effects of the pulls of these The formula itself is simple, estimating f)lanets on their sun as the sun moves the values for each of its parameters is not so through space. Careful observations over the easy. The methods by which these values are past three decades of Barnard's star, a star estimated will not be presented here. They some 20 light years away, has indicated the are explained in detail in the reference cited presence of at least one and possibly two above. The values, based on the most planets. One of the planets is about the size conservative estimates are: R "'10 stars per of Jupiter and is about 400,000,000 miles year, fp"' 1, ne"' 1, f, "'1, fi"'0.1, f c"'0.1. from its local sun. To be able to establish The multiplication of these factors gives: directly that there is even one other solar system gives strong support to the statistical N = 10 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 0. 1 x 0. 1 x L estimation that there may be at least fifty = 0.1 L. million planets in our galaxy. L is the mean lifetime in years of a It may not be necessary for an extratertechnical civilization possessing both the restrial civilization to want to communicate interest and capability for interstellar comwith us in order for us to communicate with munication. As Dr. Sagan points out "fortuthem. nately for us but not for the discussion we do not have even one terrestrial example. " 1 Furthermore, until recently it was asIf L is very small, say 100 years, then N is so , sumed that the presence of ultraviolet small that we might as well not bother radiation in extraterrestrial space would looking. If on the other hand a civilization annihilate all conceivable combinations of can survive without annihilating itself for a , atoms. But the discovery of complex molecules in deep space indicates that the same million or so years then the value of N becomes approximately one million. That is, chemical concatenations that led to life here there are approximately one million stars in on earth may be underway elsewhere. our galaxy which have planets on which According to Professor Frank Drake, intelligent civilizations reside. This corresDirector of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Centre at Cornell University: ponds to 0.001 per cent of the solar systems Each passing year has seen the probain our galaxy. bility of life in space increase, along with our capabilities of detecting it. Once contact is made our society and our More and more scientists are recognizing culture will be completely transformed. that contact with other civilizations is no longer something beyond our dreams It is important to realize that the above but an inevitable event in the history of is a conservative estimate. As we will see mankind that will occur perhaps in the later, it may not be necessary for an lifetime of many of us now alive. extraterrestrial civilization to want to comBut how will it be possible for us to municate with us in order for us to communicate with extraterrestrials? Actualcommunicate with them. ly "communicate" may be the wrong word. The preceeding argument is based on If by communicate we mean a two-way statistical probabilities. Is there any direct 1 �6. exchange of information, then our chances of communication are slim. Let us again take the most conservative stance. It is reasonable to assume that an intelligent civilization trying to send a signal to us will do so using the electromagnetic spectrum. That is, such a civilization will send signals to us at the speed of light at any of a variety of wavelengths. It has been speculated that the most likely wavelength would be 21 centimeters, that of the natural frequency of the simplest atom, hydrogen. If communication is limited by the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second, then it would take at least 20 years for a signal to reach us from Barnard's star. If we answered immediately it would take another 20 years for our answer to reach them. And it is very unlikely that the planets around Barnard's star have intelligent life. For stars farther away the round trip communication time becomes much greater than the maximum human life span. Although we may want to attempt such an undertaking in the future, the most promising form of communication is "one-way communication" in which we listen to signals from extraterrestrials. This can be done with the use of large radio telescopes. The National Academy of Science panel has proposed such an undertaking. Code named, Project Cyclops, after the one-eyed creature in Greek mythology, the giant telescope would be located on a 3,000 acre desert site 50 miles west of Socorro, New Mexico. The United States government has announced plans to build the proposed telescope which will consist of 27 dish antennas, each 85 feet in diameter and set up in a vast Y, each arm 13 miles long. Mounted on rai Iroad tracks, the V LA (for very large array of antennas} will be easily moveable for sharp focusing. The cost: an estimated $76 million. 3 Of course we should be sending signals as wel I as listening for them, "even" if we do not know to whom we are sending. After all if everybody is listening, and nobody is saying anything, then there will be nothing to hear. In fact, we have been sending signals. Recently a special attempt was made to send a specific message into space. The Pioneer 10 spacecraft launched on March 10, 1972, is designed to pass Jupiter and then swing out of the solar system toward the centre of our galaxy. Although the probability of it being "captured" by another civilization is very, very remote, a special drawing designed by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake and executed by Dr. Sagan's wife, Linda, was etched into the side of the spacecraft. like it or not we have announced our presence to the universe. The symbol at the upper left of the plaque represents two states of the hydrogen atom, and the little vertical line between the two circles denotes the 21-centimetre-long wave of electromagnetic energy that the hydrogen atom emits. Any advanced society, the designers believe, would not only recognize the atom symbol, but understand that the line represents the atom's characteristic wavelength and that it is meant to serve as a scale. Below the atom, 14 of the radiating lines depict pulsars - stars that send out radio waves in pulsed rhythms - and their positions in relation to the earth. At bottom are the sun and the planets; the bent line with an arrowhead pointing to a depiction of Pioneer 10 shows that the craft came from the third planet out from the sun and was ejected from the solar system by Jupiter's gravity. The man, with his hand upraised to show the unique opposed human thumb, and the woman beside him stand in front of a schematic sketch of Pioneer 10 to show their size relative to the vehicle. 4 More important is the fact that as a result of communication between points on earth and manned and unmanned spacecrafts during the past 20 years, we have been sending high intensity signals out into all regions of space. Some of these signals have now reached out 20 light years past the star �1. Vega. Like it or not we have announced our presence to the universe. Now we may ask, how could we possibly decipher a message sent to us from a civilization we know nothing about? It may not be as difficult as it first seems. A message would not of course be sent in some specific language as English or French. It would probably be sent in the form of a binary code consisting of signals that are alternately on and off. The decoding of such a deliberate message is relatively simple. However, it is now thought by many astronomers that what we are more likely to do is to "catch" messages of conversations between members of an extraterrestrial civilization much as they can now catch messages we have been sending to our astronauts in space. The deciphering of these messages would be more difficult but by no means impossible. At this point the reader might well feel that we have taken a much too conservative view concerning the possible forms of communication. Perhaps we should be more bold. Must we assume that communication would be by use of electromagnetic waves? Perhaps a highly advanced civilization can dispense with the electromagnetic spectrum and can send "thought waves" instantaneously to us. There are people who claim to have received such signals. We tend to dismiss such people as kooks, or interestingly enough religious fanatics. But can we be so sure that they are just imagining things? Does it follow that another intelligence would want to send signals to all of us? It is possible that only certain people, for whatever reasons, are sensitive to these signals? The answer is yes, it is possible. But if this is the case then the majority of us are not receiving these messages. For universal benefit it is more useful to concentrate on listening for signals that can be interpreted by everyone. Now let us turn to the last and by far the most interesting question. What effect wou Id the receipt of signals from extraterrestrials have on us? Let us again recognize that for at least many generations to come the communication is likely to be one-way; we receive but we do not respond. Also, as discussed earlier, the most likely situation is one of our "listening in on" conversations between members of an extraterrestrial race rather than listening to signals sent out specifically for our benefit. This makes the deciphering of the conversations much more difficult, but the payoff is correspondingly greater. We can learn a great deal more about a culture by eavesdropping than we can by listening only to what they want us to hear. So what are the possible outcomes? The first thing that comes to mind is the possibility of learning something new in the area of science and technology. Have the extraterrestrials discovered some new laws of physics, or some new all powerful energy source? The idea that we would learn some new technological information that could solve our material problems here on earth is intriguing and pervasive. I think, however, that we should be careful here. It is just as likely that we would be in a position to teach them much more than they can teach us about science and technology. While acknowledging the possibility of learning something new in this area, it should be placed at the bottom of the hierarchy of possible benefits to expect. The most important benefits are likely to occur in changes in our thinking in the social sciences, arts, philosophy, ethics and religion. It will be extremely interesting to simply know how these beings get along, how they spend their time, what they believe, and how they structure their society. It would be fascinating to know not only how we are different but also in what ways we are similar. Do they experience similar emotions of fear, love and hate? The answers could be disappointing on the one hand and refreshing and comforting on the other. Is it possible that only certain people, for whatever reasons, are sensitive to signals from extraterrestrials? �8. It would be particularly valuable to know how a foreign society deals with the phenomenon of death. The problem of death, and for us it is a problem, may be dealt with in an entirely different way by an extraterrestrial community. Whatever way this may be it will give us a useful new perspective on our greatest single preoccupation. Another area of interest is that of beauty. What is beautiful? We know that to us humans who see only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, some things appear beautiful and others do not, but we are not really sure why. Again, the idea that we might share some common appreciation of beauty is as intriguing as the idea that they may "see" far beyond what it is possible for us to perceive. In the areas of philosophy and religion it is difficult to generalize about the effects because they will be to a large extent unique to each individual. But there may be some common denominators. It would be fascinating to know not only in what ways we are different, but also in what ways we are similar. We might ask ourselves, "What the position is of the organized religion on the possibility of the existence of extraterrestrial life?" According to Rabbi Norman Lamm, Erna Michael Professor of Jewish Philosophy at Yeshiva University in New York: Judaism has throughout the ages generally confined itself to the problem of man as the sole concern of God in this world. As a result, there has come about the idea that man is the purpose of the entire universe. This has been a rather general tendency, and never formally incorporated in Jewish doctrine. However, one of the very greatest of al I Jewish thinkers, perhaps the most eminent Jewish philosopher of all time, Moses Maimonides - who flourished about eight hundred years ago - strong1y opposed "anthropocentrism," view that man is the purpose of al_l creation. He maintained that man may be the superior creature on Earth, but he need not therefore be considered the purpose of the universe. In fact, he is not necessarily the most advanced being in world. According to his approach, Judaism today can welcome a remarkable openness the idea that intelligent races, even more intelligent than man, exist elsewhere. 5 Of course organized religion has not always been so openminded. We have only to recall the refusal of the Catholic Bishops to even look through Galileo's telescope. We may ask, what difference does it make? If extraterrestrials are out there, they are out there, and whether or not we want them to be there makes no difference. But it does make a difference. It is the difference between hearing them or just listening to them, between changing and not changing. Are we ready? Some time ago a survey was conducted among the leading newscasters in North America asking them to imagine the most spectacular news story possible - bar none. Some named a cure for cancer, others an international declaration of peace. But the two at the top of the list, far above all others were ( 1} the second coming of Christ, and (2) contact with extraterrestrials. At first glance these two may seem quite different. But are they really? Of course not. Either one would provide a clear negative answer to our oldest of all questions. ARE WE ALONE? References 1. Sagan, Carl, and Shklovski, J.S. "Is There Intelligent Life Beyond The Earth?" Motion in the Heavens, Harvard Project Physics Reader, 1966. 2. Lear, John. The Search for Man's Relatives Among The Stars, Saturday Review, June 10, 1972, p. 34. 3. 1973 Nature/Science Annual, "Summing up the Year", p. 166. Time-Life Books, Inc., N.Y., 1972. 4. Ibid., p. 167. 5. Agel, Jerome, Ed. The Making of Kubrick's 2001, New American Library, Inc., N.Y. 1970, p. 55. �9. The T chin by: Roland Baird In the teaching of science one should "teach the children to think by thinking" and "science should provide students with deeper insight into the logic and methods of the professional scientist" .1 A series of learning experiences for eight grade eight pupils from Shuniah School in Thunder Bay was planned with this in mind. By describing the activities that were experienced, and the results of these experiences, it is hoped that through this one actual example the reader will see how pupils can learn to think by thinking, and how they can gain deeper insight into the logic and methods of the professional scientist, if they are properly guided by their teacher. The Lesson During the first meeting with the pupils we discussed the observations that have been made in the past about solids, liquids and gasses. They recalled that some substances changed from a solid to liquid form, and some from a liquid to a gaseous state. They saw that cooling some substances caused them to change from a gaseous state to a liquid state and from a liquid to a solid form. On being asked why all these things happened most of the pupi Is were very puzzled and it became necessary to recal I the fact that solids, liquids and gases are made of molecules. The first task given to the pupils was to have them formulate their own individual theory on why a solid can change to a liquid or a liquid may change to a gas and so on. The pupi Is were informed that scientists of years ago also had to formulate theories on why these things happened. The pupils were also made to realize that they had an advantage over the scientists of years ago, because they are fami Iiar to some extent with molecules and atoms. The pupils at some time during the learning experience should become aware of f Science what they are doing; "they should come to realize that they are employing processes through which men learn". 2 In formulating their own theories the pupils are learning by thinking, and they are using the methods of the professional scientist. The resulting theories were very interesting and showed evidence of a lot of thought on the part of each pupi I. The pupi Is were separated for one half hour and then were grouped together to discuss their theories. Below are some of the results of their efforts. - "the liquid is heated to its boiling point which will cause the molecules to break up and form a gas" - "and then the molecules are expanded forming a liquid" - "the heat when making contact with the molecules of the substance quickens up the movement of the molecules, by melting them and they become lighter. The molecules are now sort of blended together, lighter, faster and slipperier. This is how a solid changes to a liquid." - Finally, one boy when talking of how a gas changes to a liquid state, in his theory, makes the statement molecules begin to 0 pile onto each other" and one of the girls states, "I think liquids turn to gases when heated because the molecules in the liquid get even more spread out and rise into the air, becoming a gas." The discussion about the theories proved to be perhaps the most beneficial part of the entire lesson. All students were eager to comment on the theories that had been formulated. The pupils were encouraged to realize that, "science is not just a body of facts - very important too, are the techniques used in discovering these facts." 3 Much of a scientist's time is spent on experimental research, and it is often a good idea to work with a partner. This point was given to the pupils, and it was mentioned that by working with a partner you often �10. save a lot of time. One person working alone often becomes too fond of his own ideas and without realizing it, he sometimes does not see, or ignores an easier or better method of accomplishing a certain task. By working with a partner this can often be avoided. It is important that both partners be openminded, and that they discuss many possibilities. Through their discussion they were using the methods of the scientist, and it was good that they were able to criticize their own work and evaluate their own performance. At times it did become necessary for me to moderate the student's opinion of the work, or to confirm it. The Pupils' Second Task The second task given to the pupils was to use the school library, and find out all they could about molecules and the Molecular Theory. They were to work in pairs, and the information they gathered was to be put onto a sheet entitled "What Scientists Know About Molecules". They were also asked to read about some of the experiments that had been done in finding out about molecules. The task was accepted readily by most of the group because they were quite anxious to find out just how accurate the theory was that they had formulated. Here are the facts that were gathered by the pupils. They had met as one group, and under teacher guidance, listed what was thought to be most important. What Scientists Know About Molecules 1. "All matter is made up of molecules." World Book Encyclopedia, (Vol. 13), Field Enterprises Educational Corporation, U.S.A., 1972, p. 576. 2. "A molecule is the smallest possible particle of a given compound. Ex. A volume of air the size of a pin head holds 30 million times as many molecules as there are people on earth." Popular Science, (Vol. 10), Grolier Inc., New York, 1966, p. 458. 3. "A molecule is a combination of two or more atoms that form a particular substance." The New Book of Know/edge, (Vol. 15), Grolier Inc., New York, 1973, p. 236. 4. "Molecules are believed to be constantly in motion, except at the theoretical temperature that we call absolute zero. 11 The Book of Popular Science, (Vol. 1 ), Grolier Inc., U.S.A., 1966, p. 163. 5. "The rate at which molecules move depends upon the degree of hotness of a given substance." When more heat is applied the rate of speed increases and the molecules collide more frequently and with greater force. They take up more space as they bounce farther apart. "The rate of movement of molecules gradually diminishes as the temperature drops. When we reach approx. -273 degrees C the motion of the molecules stops and there is no longer any heat to measure." Ibid., p. 164. 6. Cooling Molecules - "they will move more slowly and they will collide less frequently and usually occupy less space. When molecules move together into less space, the substance contracts." The Teaching of Science by June E. Lewis and Irene C. Potter, Prentice-Hall International, Inc., London~ 1966, p. 138. 7. "The relative distance between the molecule of a substance and their relative speed usually determines whether the substance is solid, liquid or gas." Ibid. With all the information gathered on molecules and the Molecular Theory the pupils could now see what happens when substances change their physical form. They were now aware also, of why most solids, liquids, and gases expand when heated and contract when they are cooled. Some of the pupils realized that their theory had been incorrect, and others saw that some parts were quite accurate. The pupils had played the role of a scientist, and after careful research some had enjoyed partial success and others total failure. The Pupils' Third Task On the third meeting with the pupils they were asked to read over all that they had found out about molecules. The pupils were asked to think of a way (an experiment) of providing one or more parts of the �11. Molecula1· Theory. It was important that they realize that the professional scientist does not always accept what he reads - he often sets up various experiments in an effort to prove a given statement or theory right or wrong. In doing the various experiments, the pupi Is were encouraged to question each other, as they experimented, to clarify their thinking. By this kind of friendly challenge the children can stimulate each other to do critical thinking. Again, the pupils have been encouraged to use the methods of the professional scientist. When the pupils are encouraged to use their initiative in experiences like this they have excellent opportunities to practise the scientific method, and to develop problem solving skills and scientific attitudes. "The nonrigid individual has the ability to see and to state the relationships existing and necessary for the correct solution of a problem. He can take the individual facts under consideration and organize them into a single unified structure. The thought processes are broad and integrated and take all the pertinent facts into consideration in arriving at a solution to the problems." 4 Before the pupils were to begin their fourth and final task, we reviewed everything that had been accomplished thus far. A scientist should be a non rigid individual, as stated above, and the scientist must be able to review his facts, and to use them to help him solve a problem. The pupils had their facts gathered, they had some experiments, and there had been several discussions - now they would have to organize their thinking and use the knowledge gained to solve a problem. The Pupils' fourth Task A drop of ink was dropped on the surface of water in a glass beaker. The pupils watched the ink slowly diffuse with the water. A discussion followed the observations and then the pupils were asked to write down their conclusions. It was encouraging to see that all pupils had concluded that moving molecules was the cause of the diffusion. Some of their conclusions are listed below: - "The molecules in the ink started to spread because the water molecules were bouncing off the ink molecules which led to the molecules mixing." "The ink started to spread out because the water molecules were hitting the ink molecules and forcing them to spread out." - "When the ink hit the water, the molecules in the water started pushing the ink around. The water and the ink mixed filling in the spaces between the mole: cules." Some pupils were able to express their conclusions very clearly - "The molecules in the water are moving about and so are the ink molecules. When a drop of ink was placed in the water, the water and ink molecules hit off each other causing the ink to spread. This shows that the molecules are constantly moving." Some pupils could not quite grasp what was taking place, "When the ink hit the water it began to spread all over and so the molecules in the ink must move fast because the ink was all through the water in just a few minutes." This pupil had the idea of moving molecules, but she only talks about the ink molecules, and neglects to mention the collisions between water and ink molecules. The important thing, however, was that the pupil was learning to think by thinking and she was recalling facts that she had gathered in an effort to solve a problem. She was having some difficulty with the material, but she was experiencing problems that all scientists face. She had seen an experiment take place, and _she wasn't quite sure what had happened. How many thousands of scientists must have had this same experience? After a group discussion it was decided that there was a simple way of proving the diffusion was caused by the colliding molecules of both the liquids - ink and water. Scientists are often not satisfied with one experiment - they often devise· other experiments to prove that a conclusion is correct. It was decided that two beakers be filled with water. Before a drop of ink was added �12. to each, one of the beakers was cooled (put in the snow) and the other beaker was heated over a bunsen burner. The pupils saw that the ink diffused immediately in the hot water. The experiment satisfied the pupils that it was the action of the molecules that caused the diffusion. In the hot water the molecules are moving about very quickly and they therefore collide much more with ink molecules - diffusion takes place almost immediately. As one grade 8 pupil states, "The ink drop in the jar of hot water diffused much faster than the drop in cold water because the molecules were bouncing around and hitting each other much faster with heat, and therefore spread the ink much faster. In the hot water many more collisions occurred than in the cold water." "Most definitions of science agree that science begins with the search for knowledge or truth." 5 The pupils have experienced this search for knowledge as they have experimented with and discussed molecules. They have learned certain facts about molecules, but more important, they have been made to think, and they have experimented, theorized, and discussed just like the professional scientist. In the teaching of science it is important that the pupil not just learn what has been discovered, but how, and by what method the discovery took place. In having the pupils learn the methods of the scientists the science program benefits, "children should make inquiries - the child should have the opportunity to develop his resourcefulness, his imagination, his technical inventiveness and his theoretical reasoning ability ... A science program should be rich in opportunities for the development of the student's creative abilities." 6 Footnotes 1. Science. Intermediate Division Interim Revision. p. 9, Department of Education. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Educational Psychology in the Classroom by Henry Clay Lindgren, New York, London, 1962. p. 149. 5. "How To Do An Experiment" by Philip Goldstein. New York, Chicago, 1957. p. 8. 6. Science, Ontario Department of Education, (Intermediate Division, 1972). p. 9. SOLUTIONS TO PREVIOUS PUZZLES: �THE AVIARY Clues marked with an asterisk involve the common or ornithological name of a bird. A field guide to the birds would be helpful. ACROSS 1* 7. 8. 9* 10. 11 * 16* 18. 21 * 23* 26. 28. 29. 30* 31 * 32* Trailing legs and S-shaped legs identify them (6) A means of propulsion (4) The dendrocopus keeps his pecker up in here (5) One laid a 25 down or two for gentlemen (3) A plant for the encouragement of 9 across (3) A poor flier but expert diver (5) Another 1 across (5) Where waders may be found (5) A phlegmy cry for sale (4) The American symbol of war and peace (5) The attitude of 9across while concerned with 25 down (3) A short healer appropriate to the subject at hand (3) 13 down may easily be this by a bunko expert (5) An ancient Egyptian object of worship (4) A careless walker (3) Wagers driven by bitterns (6) DOWN 2* Birds under street cars (5) 3 down and 5 across* A goat milk thief is a container for moonbeams (5,3) 4 * He goes by in the street (6) 5* He sounds like a slate-coloured dope fiend, more or less (5) 6* Someone entered the water precipitately (4) 8* A witty European fellow, but lacking a tail (3) 12 down and 14 across A left-wing election (3,4) 13* Take away one chump, and you leave another (3) 14. Shove (4) 15* A practical joke (4) 17. This eater is animal but not avian, though it might arouse a flicker (3) 19* The epitome of avian wisdom (3) 20* An admiral sparrow, with a bright ochre-buff breast (5) 22* We are in for a rough sea according to the sound of things (5) 24* To speak plainly about it, a lifter at the docks (4) 26* A leg expander (5) 27. For a treat, a pet budgie may perform it (5) �14. l I AH D by: Frank Jefferies and Ron Scamme/1 Public Relations and Information Services Dept. of Energy, Mines & Resources, Ottawa Energy is a word that has been on everyone's lips during the past few years, especially during last winter with the socalled "energy crisis" in the United States. Canada is in a lucky situation at the moment in that there is a relatively abundant potential supply of energy resources in Canada, enough to fill the needs of Canadians. However, fossil fuels are not renewable and eventually Canada will deplete what she now has as the demand for energy continually increases. Research is going on to find better ways to use our present resources of energy. Canadian scientists are involved in all aspects of this research. PETROLEUM The growth in the use of oil and natural gas in the last 25 years has been phenomenal. In 1950, oil and gas contributed to about one quarter of Canada's energy needs. Today, oil and gas contribute to more than two thirds of all the energy required. But present reserves of conventional oil and gas in Alberta - which provide more than 75 per cent of all Canadian petroleum needs - will soon reach maximum production limits. And with the demand for oil and gas expected to at least triple by the year 2000, it is clear that new reserves must soon be found and brought into production. The most promising prospects for more petroleum exist in the Canadian frontier areas; such as the continental shelves and slopes, and the mainland and islands in the Arctic areas. Deposits of natural gas and oil have been found in the Mackenzie Delta area and also in the Arctic Islands. A 27-company consortium of Canadian and American firms recently applied for a permit from the federal government to construct a pipeline to move the gas from the Mackenzie Delta, along with American gas from the Alaskan E RE E y E North Slope, to markets in Canada and the U.S. Just how much oil and gas Canada has in the frontier areas is extremely difficult to estimate since most of the potential has not yet been discovered, and is only inferred through knowledge of the geology of the areas that are likely to contain petroleum. Geologists who specialize in stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural and petroleum geology combine with experts in paleontology to analyze the sedimentary basins in the frontier regions. It was a 1954 report of the scientists of the Geological Survey of Canada that spurred the present oil exploration activity in the Arctic Islands. Another I arge source of crude oi I is found in the heavy oil deposits in Alberta and Saskatchewan. However, scientists still have not discovered an economical way to recover this oil, which cannot be brought to the surface by conventional means as it will not flow. There is a potential for large future production from these deposits; for instance, once the technology has been developed, a possible 30 billion barrels might be recoverable, almost three times as much as the present proven Canadian reserves. Considerable research on the heavy oi I deposits has been carried out with one oi I company working for ten years to develop an efficient system. Pilot-plant projects using the best method developed to date steam injection - have been undertaken. This method reduces the viscosity of the oil allowing it to be recovered by conventional methods, Despite all the scientific work that has been carried out, the estimates of the oil and gas that may be found and recovered differ widely. However, the federal government's "ENERGY ANALYSIS", that was released in June 1973, estimated that Canada has enough conventional oil and gas to serve her own needs to beyond the year 2000. After that, oi I from oi I sands, and oi I and gas from coal will be needed to meet domestic �15. requirements, and will be sufficient until at least the year 2050. SYNTHETIC FUELS The Athabasca Oil Sands The possible key to the future of Canada's oil development lies under the jack pine and muskeg east and west of Athabaska River in northeastern Alberta. Here are found the Athabasca tar sands from which an estimated 300 billion barrels of oil might be recovered if the technology can be developed to extract the oil from the deep deposits. This vast amount of oil is about six times the total proved reserves of conventional oil in North America and is comparable to the present probable reserves in the Middle East. Explorer Peter Pond in 1788, while looking for a site for a Hudson's Bay Company post, noticed that the Indians used the gooey sands to patch their canoes. One hundred years later a federal government geologist from the Geological Survey of Canada reported on the sands. This was followed in 1897 by the first of many unsuccessfu I wel Is. It has only been since the 1960's that a concerted effort has been made to recover the synthetic crude. At the present open-pit mining is used to remove the tar sands, which are then processed to extract the oil. However, only a relatively small portion about 30 billion barrels-of the crude can be recovered by this method and the remainder of the Scientists from both government and industry have been investigating ways to extract the oil, similar to those envisaged for recovery from the heavy oi I deposits. Instead of the picks and shovels of the old prospectors the modern tar sands developers are using massive pieces of machinery, such as the bucketwheel excavator that is over 100 feet high. These excavators can handle over 6,000 tons of material an hour. Scientists have had to develop special metal for this equipment, to withstand the extreme wear and tear of the abrasive sand and temperatures ranging from 90 degrees above in summertime to 60 degrees below in winter. More than two dozen oil companies hold leases in the Athabasca tar sands but only one is in operation at present. Great Canadian Oil Sands Limited (GCOS), has been producing syncrude since 1967 but will be joined by a minimum of three more plants in the next ten years. GCOS produces about 50,000 barrels a day. A consortium, Syncrude Canada Limited, is pl~_nning to produce 125,000 barrels a day; and a third operator, Shell Canada Limited, 100,000 a day. Coal Gasification Potential fuels for the future are synthetic gas and oil made from coal. By reacting coal with water and heat, it is possible to obtain methane gas and oil. In theory, coal gasification presents an attractive alternative to coal as a fuel because oi I and gas are relatively clean burning, and Canada has a Iarge resource base of coal. However, there are many scientific and technical problems to be overcome. The technology for coal gasification has come a long way from the crude techniques used in the early 19th century to provide gas lighting in the streets and homes in Europe. Gasification in those days produced a gas with a low heat value. Modern gasification techniques can produce a heat value that compares to that of natural gas. The costs for full-scale development, however, are so high that gas and oil prices have to rise sharply to make the process possible on a large combustion heating it is cheaper to burn directly oil or coal than it is to produce synthetic oil and gas from coal. But, with tighter environmental controls and rising oil and gas prices, coal gasification could be an important energy source in the future. Added to the problem of the high costs of gasification is the limit on availability plant sites. Canada may have only five areas with enough water and readily available coal to make gasifiation plants feasible. Although Canada's estimated coal reserves of 120 billion tons may seem like an unlimited supply, just how much is available technically and economically has not yet been defined. �16. ATOMIC ENERGY Nuclear power, fueled by the abundant supplies of Canadian uranium, promises to be the dominant source of future energy in Canada. Of all the electricity produced in Canada today, only three per cent comes from nuclear power, with hydroelectricity supplying 75 per cent and fossil fuel plants supplying 22 per cent. But by the year 2000, it is estimated that at least 40 per cent of all electrical energy will come from nuclear generating stations. By the year 2050, Canada will have moved into the era of the "electrical society" with about 90 per cent of al I energy needs supplied by electricity, compared to about 25 per cent today. And that electricity will come primarily from nuclear power. The CANDU Reactor The unique CANDU (Canadian Deuterium Uranium) nuclear reactor, designed and built in Canada, is a proven source of nuclear power that is now attracting worldwide attention. Unlike most other reactors, CANDU uses natural uranium as a fuel, and so avoids the need for uranium enrichment plants. Proven Canadian resources of natural uranium are sufficient for at least the next 100 years. And, as improvements are made in the CAN DU design, nuclear fuel resources can be utlized for an appreciably longer period in the future. Compared to the cost of the fossil fuels, uranium is cheap. One cent's worth of natural uranium produces about 25 kilowatt hours of electricity compared to about 2 Kilowatt hours for one cent's worth of coal or oil. Also, the energy potential of uranium is enormous. One pound of the uranium used in the CANDU reactor releases the same amount of energy as 27,000 pounds of coal, or 2,200 gallons of fuel oil. With the efficient natural uranium cycle that is possible with the CANDU reactor, there is no current economic incentive to reprocess the spent fuel, which is stored in water-filled bays at the nuclear power plant. If, on the other hand, the spent fuel was reprocessed, there would be the problem of storing the waste radioactive isotopes. Despite the many advantages of Canada's nuclear power progrnm, it is not without its cha Ilenges. Si nee most of the waste heat from a nuclear plant is released into the cooling water of surrounding rivers and lakes, thermal discharges require careful disposal techniques and continued attention. Nuclear power has already begun to flex its muscles in Canada. The first full-scale nuclear power station in Canada at Pickering, Ontario, for many months has been producing more electrical power than any other nuclear power station in the world, even though the capacity of some stations is greater. Its four nuclear reactors have a capacity of 2,160,000 kilowatts - enough to supply almost 2 million homes. Two smaller prototype nuclear power stations are operating in Ontario, and another was constructed earlier in Quebec. Under construction now on the shores of Lake Huron in Ontario is a large scale nuclear complex, the Bruce Nuclear Power Development. The first 750,000 kilowatt commercial CANDU reactor will become operational in 1975, to be followed by seven others for a total planned output exceeding 6,000,000 kilowatts. Other stations will be built in Quebec and New Brunswick and before long nuclear power plants will be located in other Canadian provinces. NEW SOURCES OF ENERGY Eventually completely new sources of energy must be found. All fuels, even the abundant supplies of uranium, are finite resources, and once used, cannot be replaced. Many possibilities for energy in the future are now being researched, although large-scale development of these unconventional sources of energy is many years away. Except for fission and fusion the ultimate source of energy is solar power. So great is the energy potential of the sun that it could theoretically provide virtually unlimited supplies of energy. Already solar power is a reality in the U.S. space program but, before mass generation is possible, many technological obstacles must be overcome. There has been some Canadian research on solar power, primarily by the Brace �17. Research Institute of McGill University. This has covered such facets as the heating of water, cooking, desalination, greenhouses and the drying of agricultural products. The Brace Research Institute is also active in research on wind power for provision of electricity in remote areas as well as for water. The National Research Council and the University of Sherbrooke have also carried out work on this aspect of energy. Another potential source of large amounts of energy is fusion power. Instead of generating energy by the splitting of atoms as today's nuclear power stations do, fusion power generates energy by combing light atoms of hydrogen. Fuel for this fusion process is an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium which exists in the oceans of the earth. If one per cent of the concentration of deuterium were withdrawn from the oceans, the energy that could be release9 by fusion would amount to 500,000 times the energy of the world's initial supply of fossil fuels. Again, however, the problems of controlled fusion are difficult and a solution is decades away. Canada is not active in research in this field but a study is under way to determine the possibility of establishing a Canadian program to control nuclear fusion. Scientists at the Valcartier establishment of the Defence Research Board have carried out extensive research on lasers and their application, one of which could possibly be used in control of nuclear fusion. A renewable resource that has been receiving much attention, particularly in Canada is tidal power. The Bay of Fundy on Canada's east coast has a great potential for electrical generation, although nowhere near the potential of solar power or fusion power. The costs at present, however, seem too great for commercial development. Canadian scientists are in the forefront of research for new energy sources and will continue in this role in the future. The International Congress of Mathematicians 1974 by: Dr. P. Mah Lakehead University, Thunder Bay The International Congress of Mathematicians, held every four years, recently brought together approximately 7000 mathematicians and their families from around the world to the campus of the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, B.C. The Congress opened on the 21st day of August and lasted for 9 days. Since one of the primary aims of the Congress was to promote personal contacts among mathematicians over the world, the organizers, chaired by Professors R.D. James and M. Sion of the University of B.C., have tried to integrate the scientific and social aspects of the programme. Efforts had been made to provide individuals with frequent opportunities to meet and exchange ideas in congenial surroundings. There was general agreement among the Fe! lows of the Con- gress that the unique setting and the peaceful atmosphere of the campus of UBC have contributed greatly to the achievement of this goal. With the same goal in mind, the organizers had decided to break tradition by not setting aside Sunday as a tour day but rather, instead, scheduled a series of daily tours, barbecues and picnics for relatively small groups throughout the Congress. And although formal lectures were scheduled throughout the days of the Congress, participants usually could find at least a couple of days in which no formal sessions in their area of interest would be given. All formal lectures were held at the University of B.C. However, the University of Victoria and Simon Fraser University held open house for mathematicians during the Congress. In addition to this, seminars on Probabilistic Methods in Differential Equations, Mathematical Logic, some aspects of Applied Mathematics, and Graph Theory were held in these universities. �18. There were 17 invited expository addresses of one hour duration. These were given by top men in their fields. Each address was intended to inform members of the Congress about the general evolution of mathematics in some major area and should be understood by most mathematicians working in other fields. These addresses were given in a theatre and were televised live through the campus. Moreover, the addresses were recorded on videotape and may be replayed at any convenient time. Addresses of a more specialized nature were given by 160 invited speakers. These lectures, of 45 minutes duration, were intended to present developments in more specialized fields, and were. likely to be more technical. Again, these lectures were delivered by top people in their fields and their audience consisted mainly of those working in their area of interest. As well, there were approximately 700 short communications of 15 minutes duration given by the delegates. These communications contained the results of their mathematical research. In addition to these formal lectures, numerous informal seminars and discussions were arranged on individual basis. One of the highlights of the Congress was the open ceremonies, including the announcement of the winners of the Fields Medals Awards, at the Queen Elizabeth Theatre in downtown Vancouver. The Fields Awards was named after the Canadian mathematician J.C. Fields. The award is given for top contributions made by young mathematicians (aged below 40) in their research. Although the award consists of a gold medal and a cash prize of $1000, mathematicians all over the world have come to value the award as an equivalent of a "Nobel Prize" in mathematics. The idea of the award was first proposed in Toronto, 1924. Two awards were made at each Congress since 1936, but the organizers of the Moscow Congress in 1966 and those of the Nice Congress in 1970 found it difficult to select only two winners and so they raised the number to four (which perhaps indicated that tremendous progress has taken place in mathematics in the last two decades). This year, the winn~rs were Professors Enrico Bombieri, University of Pisa, Italy and David Mumford, Harvard University. A more comprehensive list of past winners will appear at the end. The last day of the Congress was August 29 and during the closing ceremonies it was announced that the next Congress will be held in Helsinki in 1978. Attending the Congress from Lakehead University were Professors W. Allaway, A. Day, W. Eames, C. Kent, P. Mah, S. Naimpally and J. Whitfield. Professor Allaway presented a paper entitled "The Representation of Orthogonal Polynomials in Terms of a Differential Operator Containing Their Generating Function", while Profes- sors Day and Whitfield chaired a section of the Congress. Prior to the Congress, mathematics departments across Canada held open house for foreign mathematicians enroute to the Congress. Visiting Lakehead University for five days was Professor Ivan Singer, Head of Section of Functional Analysis and Geometry, Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Bucharest, Romania. Professor Singer is considered to be one of the leading authorities on the Theory of Best Approximation and the Theory of Bases. He has written numerous articles and books on the subjects. While he was here, he presented a colloquium talk entitled "On Best Approximation in Normal Linear Spaces". List of Fields Medallists Oslo, 1936 ...................... Lars Ahlfors Jesse Douglas Cambridge, Mass., 1950 ........ Laurent Schwartz Atle Selberg Amsterdam, 1954 ............ Kunihiko Kodaira Jean-Pierre Serre Edinburgh, 1958 .......... Klaus Friedrich Roth Rene Thom Stockholm, 1962 ............... Lar Hormander John Milnor Moscow, 1966 ............... Michael F. Atiyah Paul J. Cohen Alexander Grothendieck Stephen Smale Nice, 1970 ....................... Alan Baker Heisuke Hironaka S.P. Novi kov John G. Thompson Vancouver, 1974 .............. Enrico Bombieri David Mumford �19. • science by: Professor J.S. Griffith lakehead University, Thunder Bay Read through the topics listed below, then decide which are ideas of science fiction authors and which have been proposed in scientific journals. (a) Life on Mars (b) Alteration of the rotational axis of Mars so that more earth-like conditions exist on the planet (c) Life on Titan (a satellite of Saturn) (d) Manned space missions to comets and asteroids (e) Millrons of planets moving through space unattached to stars {f) Millions of planetary systems in our galaxy, with a high proportion of them inhabited. All these ideas have been taken from reputable scientific research journals for professional astronomers. 'Towards a more habitable Mars - orthe coming Martian spring' was the title of the paper that contains ideas (a) and (b). Recent observations of Mars (Mariner 9 and other probes) have shown us features which are at present only explainable in terms of the flow of water at some time in the not too distant past. There are a large number of dried-up 'river beds' sharply concentrated towards the equator of Mars, indicating that the climate of Mars was at one time more Earth-like with flowing surface liquid water. Calculations show that a fifteen per cent increase in the heat absorbed by the polar ice caps of Mars would release sufficient carbon dioxide to increase the atmospheric pressure and hence the climatic circulation and prevent the ice caps (of carbon dioxide overlying water ice} from reforming. Four mechanisms for the ice ages of Mars are possible. (i) changes in the amount of heat produced by the Sun (ii) changes in the orientation of the rotational axis of Mars (iii) polar wandering, bringing the ice caps into warmer regions of the planet (iv) dust gradually covering the ice caps, increasing the amount of absorption of energy (like the sinking of dirt into snow banks). Spores are known to exist for very long periods of time on the Earth, and if the excessive evolutionary pressure that Mars would exert has produced life spores that survive through an ice age to the next warm period, triggered into activity by the melting of the permafrost, then life on Mars may exist. Two of the experiments on the Viking landers involve the addition of water to samples brought into the spacecraft, and may reveal the presence of such spores. There is a discrepancy between the predicted rate of arrival of solar neutrinos and the observed value, and it is suggested that this discrepancy is due to expansion of the solar core. There is a suggestion of such expansion (and consequent variation in brightness) in observations of other stars, • and to the extent that climatic change produced by major solar variability produced major evolutionary advances on the Earth, comparable biological evolution could have occurred on all other inhabited planets in the Galaxy. Population pressure on the Earth may • lead to the desire to populate other planets. To make Mars habitable before the expected spring which is expected in about 10,000 years, it is proposed to move asteroids close to Mars, so that their gravitational field tips • the poles of Mars and moves the ice caps into. warmer areas. The energy for this movement of asteroids would come from solar radiation. Titan - a greenhouse Life on Titan is suggested because it has a greenhouse atmosphere. Unlike the Venusian and terrestrial atmosphere greenhouses where carbon dioxide is a prominent factor, on Titan hydrogen plays a dominant role, with surface temperatures as high as 200K and abundant organic compounds in the clouds, atmosphere and surface. Biological action under these circumstances is by no �20. means out of the question, and Mariner flyby missions or even landings are proposed. Planetary systems around other stars are difficult to detect, and the suggestion that Barnard's star has planets has been questioned. However it is proposed that the majority of single main-sequence stars of spectral type later than F5 possess planetary systems, because these stars have slower rotational rates than 0, B and A stars. The slowing of rotation is due to magnetic linkage with a surrounding disk of protoplanetary material. Many such disks have been observed, and it is probable that we are witnessing the formation of a large number of planetary systems. In some cases a part of the proto-planetary material acquires a spin sufficient for it to be detached from its gravitational orbit around the star, and from these fragments and from conglomerations of dust and gas insufficient in mass to form both planets and stars, the existence of planet-like objects, unattached to stars, exceeding stars in number, is deduced. Life on Comets? We still do not know precisely how our 0 en own solar system evolved, and cometary and asteroidal material is thought to represent the Rosetta stone to our understanding of the evolution of the solar system, being virtually uncontaminated primeval material. A recent NASA report contains the quotation that possibly "comets even harbor very primitive forms of live organisms". Flyby missions, followed by sample collection would greatly increase our knowledge. "The ultimate in small body exploration would be a manned mission." Flyby missions would, for example, let us·decide which asteroids were spoiled by internal heating, differentiation and the effects of shock waves and heat changes with no clues left as to how they were formed. In these six areas, science fiction is becoming science fact. Man's imagination is ofte.n limited to extrapolation of accepted scientific facts, so it is not really surprising that many of these extrapolations are becoming overtaken by the march of science. After all, in the nineteenth century any form of powered flying machine would have been science fiction. niversity by: Professor C. F. Kent Lakehead University, Thunder Bay In the spring of 1974 Lakehead University's Department of Mathematical Sciences decided to offer three of its first year courses by use of Open University course materials. The Open University in Britain is a full degree-granting university operating for off-campus "extension" students. The O.U. makes extensive use of television and radio and operates regional tutorial centres in many parts of Britain. The faculty of the O.U. has produced much high quality educational material and it is interesting to test their booklets and films in the Canadian context. aths The Ministry of Colleges and Universities through its Committee on Instructional Development, assisted the Department of Mathematical Sciences with the cost of purchase of some of the necessary equipment, and sections of three courses, Math 1160, 1181 and 1281 are being offered this year via the O.U. pathway. Two sections of M1181, Calculus and Algebra (with computer) and one section of M 1281, Introduction to Pure Math are in progress on the Thunder Bay campus. An extension section of M1281 is in progress in Dryden, and other off-campus students are using O.U. materials to study the calculus. All of these students will be �21. scheduled to meet with L.U. math faculty members regularly during the year. In Britain, the Open University telecasts twice each week a 25 minute film for the lesson unit under study that week. There are also radio tapes broadcast each week. At two-week intervals British students meet a tutor for a one-hour help session at a regional resource centre. The O.U. math instructors generally feel that students could use more help than they get. The Open University admits any applicant who is 21 years old to any of its programs of study, without regard to academic prerequisites. The success rate of their students in non-science courses is quite high, while in science courses success rates fall off. Unfortunately, in mathematics the success rate is lowest. This only points up something that most of us already know, that mathematics is a subject which people have difficulty learning, for a variety of reasons. But, the O.U. experience has also shown that the students who complete their program compare well with graduates of other British universities. The L. U. Department of Math Sciences is well aware of the help that many students require with math, and it tries to establish a firm contact between students using the O.U. materials and mathematics staff. The O.U. films for the courses offered are owned by L.U. and are used to supplement the texts written by the O.U. course teams for each lesson unit. Unfortunately it is not technically possible, nor financially feasible to telecast these films in N.W. Ontario. The course texts are independent of the films, but the films are a valuable supplement to the texts and provision is made for offcampus students to see the films. The O.U. course teams have made very effective use of the film medium to present background material which is too time consuming and costly for an individual math instructor to prepare. Interviews and short film documentaries on the applications of math in the everyday world, elaborate and effective models and devices for illustrating mathematical ideas, and effective use of computer graphics are intermixed in the films. Mathematics in today's world is a vital and changing subject. There was a major change in mathematics teaching which generally acquired the name "new math". That name meant that the infusion of unifying ideas from set theory devised in the 19th century finally caught on in school teaching in the middle of the 20th century. But, that is now yesterday's story. There is a "newer math", and that is computational math. The O.U. math materials are prepared to emphasize the importance of computations which were not possible several years ago, but can now be performed by the rapidly growing generation of computers which will soon be available nearly everywhere. Many such computational procedures can be carried out on the very small calculators and should be introduced to anyone who intends to use or teach math. One example of the O.U. approach to this subject will conclude this account. For many years, in fact centuries, it was necessary to develop mathematical techniques to short circuit calculation. Such formulas as the "quadratic formula" for solving equations like AX 2 + BX + C O do this very effectively by writing ( 1) X == -B+ /8 2 - 4AC (2) 2A Unfortunately, other classes of equations do not submit to this kind of treatment. An equation like SIN (X) - X 1-5 0 (3) would, until recently, have been regarded with horror by generations of math users. To the computer age student, equation (3) is no more troublesome than equation (1 ), and there are several very simple ideas for its computer solution. Equation (3) can be rewritten as (4) X == (SIN X)Lf.3 and what equation (4) "says" is that we want a value for X which is unchanged by 2 the calculation of the right side, (SIN X) l3. Such values can often be found by guessing an initial value, X 1 , passing X 1 through the calculation (SIN X)2'3 to get a better value �22. X 2 , and by repeating this process until a stable value of X is found. Stable means that the number X, expressed to as much accuracy as we are interested in, emerges unchanged from the calculation box. The procedure is summarized in the diagram. this procedure is given below. It is written in the APL computer language used on the LU computer, but the thing to note is how short and concise the instructions to the computer are. There is also a computer printout of a solution to equation (3), to 5 decimal place accuracy. The same solution was carried out on a hand-held Texas Instrument calculator, in the same number of steps, in 70 seconds. A short computer program which performs APL INSTRUCTION f/ [l] [2] [3] [4] (5] (6] K SOLN X XN+X XN XM+-(1 oXN) *2¾3 +( ( ( IXN-XM) )!;K) /0 XN+XM +2 V . 00001 SOLN 1.0 EXPLANATION [l] [2] (3] [4] (5] [6] Choose X as first guess Print the current value 2;. Computethe function (SIN(XN)) 3 If the difference in the last two values is ::;K, stop Change the guess to the new value from [3] Go back to line [2]. Starting with a guess of 1, compute to accuracy .00001 . 1 0.8913044954 0.8458231997 0.8243934626 0.813800048 0.8084452283 0.8057085975 0.8043022638 0.803577518 0.8032034828 0.8030103024 0.8029104907 0.8028589102 0.8028322518 0.8028184731 The "convergence" of the successive test values to a solution to equation (3) which the above table illustrates, is one of the cornerstone ideas of the calculus. Introducing the calculus student to the idea behind the computer solution not only teaches him a useful computational technique, but helps him to understand one concept of the calculus in a concrete situation. �UNITS ACROSS 1. The Canadian body responsible for metrication (6, 10) 8. 1/100 chain (NOT an SI Unit) (4) 9. 1/12 of this carbon entity is 1 u (4) 10. A quality measured in kg m·3 (7) 13. la (4) 15. The old name for 1 fm (5) 16. Happenings without units (6) 19. A width (4) 21. The general term for a creative mental exercise (4) 22. Anti-front? (4) 23. 10·18 (4) 24. The consumption of this device is normally measured in kWh (6) 25. The units of this might be m km·1 (5) 26. 100 fm 2 - not SI. (4) 29. 104 m2 (7) 32. A low pH (4) 33. Fishy non-SI measure of capacity (4) 34. Children here now will be accustomed to SI Units (10,6) .DOWN 1.. A loose way of describing a plane figure of area 10· 6 m2 (10,6) 2. Factors for metric units (4) 3. Hurrah! for SI Units? (5) 4. Units of electrical resistance (4) 5. The quality characteristic of mass (6) 6. A very small amount - but not an SI Unit (4) 7. The answers to metric calculations, excluding the units (9,7) 11. The base of SI multiples (7) 12. The quality measured in JK·1 (7) 14. n/2 radians from N (4) 17. The next nearest one is about 4 light years (4) 18. A non-SI Unit of length (4) 20. Unsatisfactory (4) 26. The outside of a chest (6) 27. Incorrect (5) 28. A non-SI Unit of length (1.609344 km) (4) 30. 101325/760 Pa (4) 31. Liable to be high when the barometer reads a low value of 3 0 (4) �24. T~rowilg l ht on the Past of Cer ia by: Dr. S.J. Fleming Research Laboratory for Archaeology, Oxford The phenomenon of thermoluminscence (TL) is exhibited to a varying degree by many minerals. It is an emission of light when the mineral is heated: th is Iight is additional to· the usual incandescence that occurs at elevated temperatures around 400° C. It represents the release of energy stored as trapped electrons in the crystal lattice of the mineral. The energy is accumulated by absorption from nuclear radiation to which the mineral hlay have been exposed. Consequently the amount of TL observed (as measured using an extremely sensitive photo-mufti pf ier) is directly related to the overall radiation dose which has·been received. In terracotta and most types of pottery there are crystalline .constituents (like· quartzes and feldspars). that have this capacity for accumulating TL energy particularly well. Though they receive only a small dosage of nuclear radiation each year over the long periods of archaeological burialthe total dose experienced is quite appreciable. The dosage comes from radioactive impurities (around 1-10 parts per million ppm - of uranium and thorium and a few per cent of potassium) in the clay fabric itself and in the surrounding burial media; cosmic radiation also makes a smaff contribution. The concentrations of the radioactive impurities can be measured using standard laboratory techniques. Time-zero for pottery In a geological condition the relevant minerals will have accrued huge levels of TL energy but this will have been driven off during the process of kiln-firing when ancient man included some sand in his clay stock to help the pottery fabric withstand the rigours of extreme heating. Immediately after its manufacture the pottery's stored TL is nil. A time-zero has been set that is directly related to the age of a■cl Bro■zes the pottery. In present times the natural TL carried by the sample can be expressed as an accumulated dose. This is determined by exposing the sample to radiation from an artificial radio-isotope of known strength, hence calibrating each individual fabric with respect to its susceptibility to TL energy storage. We may then use the equation: Age = Accumulated dose Annual dose-rate to obtain a date of· manufacture for the pottery. It is worth stressing the importance of the mechanism of time--zero setting peculiar to pottery-making. Other media of interest to archaeologists and art connoisseurs, like marble and sandstone used in sculpture, jades and. precious stones used for decoration, obsidian used for tool-making, are geological in origin. TL anijlysis of these would duly yield a geological age, not a date for when the material was worked in antiquity. Archaeological dating A major limitation in accurate TL age determination is the dependence of the annual dose-rate on external environmental factors. Even in homogeneous burial contexts there are a number of difficulties associated with evaluation of the gamma radiation dose-rate from radioactivity analysis of an extracted soil sample. The most obvious is that groundwater (low in self-radioactivity) directly dilutes the dosage from the burial medium by acting as an energy absorber itself. This correction for the presence of water is also applicable to the internal dose components of the pottery (short-range alpha and beta radiation) but. saturation uptake rarely exceeds 20 per cent while uptake in soil media reaches levels of 70 per cent of the dry material weight. Further, the decay chain of uranium includes an isotope of particular importance, radon (Rn 222 ), which is gaseous and thus capable of high mobility about the soil and �25. of free movement to the outer atmosphere. Close to 98 per cent of the total gamma-ray energy associated with the uranium chain lies beyond this gaseous decay product. The radioactive half-life of radon, of 3.84 days, allows a degree of diffusion - dependent upon the soil's porosity -- comparable in distance with the influential range of gamma-radiation of about 30 cm that affects the pottery sherd's dosage. The presence of soil moisture reduces this diffusion by an order of magnitude, but now a transportation mechanism during groundwater flow allows radon displacement of up to 2 m. Inevitably these factors result in the environmental dose-rate being subject to seasonal fluctuations. As a short-term solution at present a measure of the integrated annual gamma dosage is obtained by placing a small capsule of annealed fluorite in as similar a burial position as possible to that from which the sherd was removed. This dosimetry phosphor has a susceptibility to radiation many orders of magnitude greater than pottery minerals and so an accurate measurement of the environmental dosage is easily obtained at the end of the year's burial. The level to which such a short-term measurement correctly reflects the levels experienced in the long-term archaeological burial is questionable and comparison of two sherds from an original test programme of the TL method may well show this (See table below). The distinguishing feature between the two sherds is the different dependence on the environmental dose-rate (the 0.080 rad yr-1 being the value obtained at the site during 1968-69 using the monitor capsule approach). For the sherd d2 which has a high internal dose-component the surroundings contribute less than 21 per cent of the total dose-rate, but for sherd d4 that dependence reaches a level of 57 per cent. Thus it is reasonable that while d2 yields a TL age within 2 per cent of the known age for the Roman Fort, d4 is about 11 per cent in error. Yet with a change of only 0.016 rad yr- 1 in the environmental dose-rate both sherds lie within 2 per cent of the known age - such a variation is certainly a reasonable level to be expected in longterm fluctuations. Accuracy of the TL dating method has been shown to be close to ±7 per cent per sherd, on average (expressed as one standard deviation, statistically). In application thermoluminescence has been used on pottery from the Nok culture of Nigeria, from the Early Bronze Age phase of Crete (at the site of Myrtos), from the Jomon Culture of Japan (placing the early occupation of the important site of Fukuie Cave as far back as the eleventh millennium BC). Aboriginal hearth material from Mungo Lake, Australia, has been provisionally dated to arpund 35,000 years old. The neolithic levels of the Cretan site of Knossos are now under investigation through study of the six-metredeep strata below the renowned Minoan Palace site. Authenticity studies on ceramics From the outline of the principles of the TL method given above the distinction between an authentic art ceramic and one of modern origin (be it imitation or forgerv) is now apparent. The modern ware wi II -yield only a small fraction of the TL observed from its genuine counterpart. There are special restrictions upon the accuracy the TL method can achieve in dating art ceramics, however. To prevent physical damage to the piece the sampling process involves drilling a hole only about 2-3 mm diameter in the piece. The small quantity of material collected allows only approximate assessment of the radioactivity content of the clay. Also, the cleaning of the ceramic prior to sale or display removes the adhering soil that could have given some indication of the piece's burial environment so the latter quantity, in terms of radioactivity, is an unknown in our age calculations. Accuracy of dating of authentic wares is then usually around ±15 per cent, at best. With modern wares the lack of •sufficient time to build up a significant TL signal means that it is rarely distinguishable against the background incandescence also measured for each sample. Then only a limit can be set on the piece's age. �26. The examples discussed below have been chosen to illustrate one central theme: that, irrespective of how accomplished and experienced an art historian may become in recognising style visually, certain features of the forger's skill must necessarily cause severe headaches. (i) Terracotas of the Renaissance period offer an interesting problem for a couple of distinct reasons. Workshop techniques of manufacture typified by the works of the della Robbia family such as the Pieta allow anomalies in style to be attributed to either imitative attempts in recent times or the hand of an apprentice whose efforts slightly distort the characteristic family style. Also there was a phase of definite encouragement of high quality imitation from 1850 onwards. Indeed, the Doccia factory was awarded gold medals in 1851 and 1855 for its ability to simulate della Robbia tinglazing techniques, a treatment of the terracottas originally intended to harden them sufficiently to face outdoor exposure, so offering a cheap alternative to use of the more fashionable marble. The passing of over a century and the blurring of documentation of the sources of imitations of this type may well have allowed many pieces to receive false attribution in present times. (ii) Ceramics of the T'ang Dynasty in China (Ad 618-906) first attained popularity in the western world during the second decade of this century. A large proportion of these wares were unearthed quite by chance as railway construction carved through the ancient tombs in the Chinese countryside. However, at the same time several kiln sites were found that gave much insight into the technology of the T'ang artisans, particularly aspects of the use of piece-moulding methods. Several original casting moulds were taken up and some were re-used to produce impeccable forgeries. The idea would cover a very wide spectrum of unglazed T'ang Dynasty wares such as groups of musicians, zodiac figures of mythical significance, groups of warriors and other animal types, like camels and oxen. Porcelain problematical A recent development in the TL method has been its application to Chinese stonewares and porcelains. Here only partial success has been achieved as the cl~y used for these wares was usually much purer than the more common earthenware ceramics: only limited amounts of crystalline impurities were added before firing. Occasionally even authentic wares give no natural TL, nor do they respond to laboratory radiation. The TL method is then simply not usable. One important example is worthy of note however - a phosphate-splashed bottle. This high-fired grey stoneware piece received much acclaim at the Oriental Ceramic Society Exhibition of T'ang Dynasty Art in 1955, but has recently been questioned by experts in America. The TL authentication of the bottle has offered a rapid solution to this academic controversy. Dating of Bronzes Specific reference was made to minerals that possessed the property of TL energy storage. Indeed this property is limited to such substances - metals (bronze, si Iver and gold) and other materials of archaeological importance, like wood, do not have the same capacity and so TL analysis cannot be applied to them, in a direct sense. However, many ancient civilizations employed a technique of bronze manufacture that involved casting the metal about a sand or clay core. Then TL analysis becomes feasible, not on the metal itself but upon this supporting, fired ceramic-like material inside. In China th is technique of construction began in the Late Shang period (circa 1100 BC) and is particularly common in the Chou period (1027-222 BC) that followed. It is of interest to note that the documented era of imitation of early Chinese bronzes is the Sung Dynasty (AD 960-1279) when academic interest in that material flourished. The intervening 900 years or so, coming forward to the present day, is quite long enough to allow development of good patination indistinguishable from that on much earlier pieces. �27. Dating is practical on bronzes from Africa (particularly of the Benin period) and has already found useful application in material from Java, Cambodia, Nepal, India and Thailand, where, unfortunately, there are growing signs of a flourishing industry in production of imitation wares. In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the fact that TL dating is an absolute method, not dependent upon reference standards and requiring no data on technology of the past to solve authenticity problems. As such it may be fairly claimed as one of the most powerful tools in archaeological and art historical research now available. Further reading See Archaeometry, volumes 11 onwards (bulletin of the Oxford Research Laboratory for Archaeology and History of Art). Two monographs by the author are due to be published in 1973 by Merrow Press, England. Table: TL dating of sherds from Baginton, England (Roman Fort, AD 70). Sherd reference Water uptake {% of dry weight) d2 d4 12.5 10.2 Dose-rate internal (rad yr-1 ) 0.306 0.060 Dose-rate environmental (rad yr-1 ) Accum. dose (rad*) TL age (years} 0.080 0.080 750 287 1940 2110 * The doses are expressed in rad, equivalent to an absorbed energy of 100 ergs/g. This article is reprinted from Spectrum, No. 108, 1973. EDITOR'S NOTE Caret is directed at the high-school teachers and students, and we would Ii ke to keep it so with your help. One of my many headaches as editor is to know what do and would appeal most to my readers. I have been fortunate, in this new office, to have many useful criticisms and suggestions from the Editorial Board, and we at LU. are beginning to introduce some changes, e.g. shorter articles, more frequent issues, Editor's Mix with word games, definitions, etc. I cannot help feeling that much more can be done yet. In the Science Faculty, particularly near Science Fair time, we often have requests from students for help with their projects. In Caret we would like to feature a Question Box in the hope that the answers would prove useful to a wider spectrum of readers, particularly those from out of town. So why don't you - and that means YOU TOO - write to us, send in your queries, WRITE!? It is of course always gratifying to receive letters like that from Mr. Dunnell, but that of Miss McBride is equally welcome. As in the past issues of Caret we are again appealing to you to let us know how you feel about Caret. Feelings, likes and dislikes do change. So, even if you have written before, do write again soon! Another headache that many editors have is to find persons willing to write articles. In this respect I have been fortunate to inherit a number of articles from the previous editor, Dr. J. Hart. I thank him for them, the crossword puzzles and for his help. But I am counting on YOU for future articles, and I thank you in advance for them. I also thank the contributors ir, this issue of Caret, all those who have helped to produce it, those who attended the Editorial Board meeting, and Mr. S.T. Spivak for his work on the crosswords. True or False? ammeter: a device for measuring the elevation of the sun through 90 degrees, from sunrise to noon. cataract: a waterfall genome: fictitious character commonly found under mushrooms If you do not agree with those definitions, send in YOUR version. �LA EE I SITY FACULTY OF SCIENCE THE BORA LASKIN SCH LARSHIPS Five scholarships of $1,000.00 will be awarded in 1975-76 to students entering the Energy and Fuel Science programme. The scholarships are renewable for a maximum of three years depending on academic progress. Early application is advised and further details of the competition can be obtained from: The Office of Bursaries and Scholarships, c/o Dean of Students, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario. P7B SEl �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. UCARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P78 5E1 �PLEASE LEA VE ME ABOUT FOR OTHERS TO READ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 4 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 4, January 1975. Articles on a variety of topics: Extraterrestrial life and the statistical probability of life Teaching science to children Future energy fuels, petroleum, oil and gas to new sources like uranium and solar energy International Congress of Mathematicians Open University Maths Archaeological dating in ceramics and bronze Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-01 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/4b6d4b01bda768073453a87802dd7835.pdf 11208fb284582c9e5236461ece85fa2a PDF Text Text LAKEHEAD UNI SCIENCE VOLUME 1 NUMBER 3 . INTERNATIONAL ' NUMBER �Our CARET symbolizes the disastrous communications gap between High Schools and Universities: the bridge across it is missing and we will hope to span the void if only with a gossamer thread. Let us know what kind of articles you would like to see. Write an _article yourself and send it in. Push your science teachers into sending us stories about their scientific and personal interests, or write about them yourselves (what an opportunity!) Above al I, don't think that what you have to say will not be of any interest to us: let us be the judge of that. And, please don't assume that university scientists are somehow not quite human; we experience the same emotions of fear and hope, love and hate as the majority of human kind. Type: Fiona Karlstedt Design: LU. Media Services Printing: LU. Print Shop �aret A LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REV!EW incorporating LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE (kar'at) n. A sign (A or A) aced below a line to indicate something shou 1d be inserted. EDITOR VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3, 197~. EDITORIAL LETTERS TO THE EDITOR THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE SQUAD Dr. J. by A. W. Kruijshoop ASSOCIATE EDITOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING IN AUSTRALIA by A. J. Mortlock SCIENCE WITHOUT ELECTIVES by Hart, Lakehead University Professor B. Spenceley HONORARY EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Mrs . G . I. Hart EDITORIAL BOARD Mr. G. Campbell, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute Mr. c. Gehrels, Ontario Ministry of Education Mr. W. Lajoie, Westgate Collegiate & Vocational Institute BIOMECHANICS - YOGAMECHANICS by B. R. THE ENERGY DILEMtv'iA by G-A. Grin HEAT, ENTROPY AND LAWLESSNESS by K. M. Khanna AN INTERVIEW WITH GRAHAM CHANDLER, DEPUTY REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD, ENGLAND THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SCIENCE IN THE U.S.S.R. by E. S. 9 '13 15 17 19 22 27 Bobrov Mr. T. Reynolds, Queen Elizabeth High School, Sioux Lookout Valerie Mothersill 15 PUBLISHED BY THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO, CANADA. P7B 5El 5 Seth A GEOLOGIC TRAVERSE ACROSS AFRICA CARET 3 R. J. Julian Mr. J. Palko, Port Arthur Collegiate Institute THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN CARET DO NOT NEC ES SAR I LY REFLECT THE OPINIONS OF THE EDITOR, THE FACULTY OR THE UNIVERSITY. 2 36 by John S. Mothersill TRAVELS WITH MY SON by AU SEUIL D'UNE NOUVELLE TECHNOLOGIE: LA SUPRACONDUCTIVITE by Gaston Fischer WELCOME TO MY SCHOOL by Ernie Dojack ARISTOTLE'S IDEAS ON MOTION 41 44 47 49 by D. G. Hughes KENORA ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEY by R. Aitken LE CHAMP MAGNETIQUE TERRESTRE 51 53 by Gaston Fischer THE CONTINUING ADVENTURES OF MATWiAN 59 by The Lakehead University Math Club �I! fl IC I By Martin Steward technological advance appears to be Though a log l ca 1 necess I ty, such a system is 1 i ke l y to pi ay havoc w l th advance in pure Sdence. A swing away from the idea of technology as a by-product of pure research, to- c<;mirig to a~1 end, i t ls perhaps unfzJshJc,na'.)]e ~:c: try to anticipate wards fundamenta, advance as a byproduct of "R & ;)'' is almost in- the s~are o~ our society, say a hun- evitab]e, Indeed, it is impossible to see the cotrntry 1 s scientists satisfied with such a system. Would lt not be more real ist!c for the government to continue to sponsor research in such fundamental subjects ln the universities as part of general educatlonai pol icy, and encourage the more !iuseful": fields to follow the example of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, and take immed late advantage of the 1 r practical applications? At the beginning of this year, the Pasteur, France's outstanding institute for At a time when, to the general pub! kc- a per ioci of z-eai ly dramatic dred yea:-·s f:-om now" T!·,: s, however, must he.we cee,1 3 quest l on in the mind cf evc:-y scientist during the lase yt2r~ as t~e government 1 s views on the :;ponso,sh i p of scientific research have grad~ally crystallised thrnc1gi '.:re H~;thsch;1d Re;:,ort ancf the \t!h te '-'aper, ;:l\ Framework for Gc>vernmen'.:: Research and Development". As most scientists are on,y too uncomfortably a1.r1are, there ls one m,Jjol"' prcb 1 em inherent l""l the present system. As far as the government is concerned, sc l' ent l sts involved in pure ,.. esearch are being pald largely to satisfy their own appetites for knowledge of the universe. Apart from unfortunately negi igible lnte l l ec tu a 1 v a l u e to the pub i i c (negligible because of extreme sped al isatlon 1 n many topics, and poor communication between scientists and public), the only real value of such ;-,ese2rch tc> the country is the occasional technological innovation which results. As lnflat:on and other short-term problems gradually r'l!du::.e the ava1 1 able funds, it is only raturaI for the goverr1mentto re~f~xarni n~ the system and attempt to improve the efficiency in terms of t(?chnologlcal yield. As a result, ti1ough, gover'1ment support for pure r1?searcii, i, e, that which does not hdve ;,ny techno log i ca; goa 'I in ml n d • will have to be severely restricted, r,1s ls a logical nf.:cessity -- however uncomfortable for the pure research scieritlsL Equally loglca! ls the request that scientists take an active interest in DES,\- pol lcy, but, l f present L1dicatlons are a reliable guide, such a change of approach w I 1 l get off to a shaky start amongst our more conservative scientific Institutions. 2 fundamental biological and medical research, founded its own who l i yown ed limited pharmaceutical company, whose tot a 1 prof i ts w i 11 pass directly to pure research. As this example demonstrates, i t requl res the in i t i at! ve of scientists alone to spark off such a venture, and clear;y it is their responsibility to attempt th ls and, in doing so, help the country to maintain work in the Jess technologically useful fundamental sciences that are really the vital i nsp l ration beh l nd a 1 1 scientific research and for which we have such a high reputation. '~Department of Education and Science. r--------=-·-7 j This article Eirst appeared in ! ~ ENQU i RY 1973, the Sc.ience ,Journal lof the f!arrov,J County School for ~ Boys. Mart in Steward won an Open ~ !scholarship to read Natural~ ;scienc(::S at Christ's College,! and is now studying , ~ I t has been slightly abridged. i Cambr.idge i there. �LETTERS TO THE EDITOR I thoroughly enjoyed the magazine and think i t would be very useful in the library. Please let me know the cost of a yearly subscription. Thank you very much for the complimentary copy of the La.kehead publication CARET. As suggested, we will see that i t is left about for others to read. Future copies will also be appreciated. P. Backer, Librarian Hanmer Secondary School Hanmer. Ontario I The publication of CARET (Vol. 1, No .. 2) should delight our students and teachers .. We appreciate the complimentary copy mailed to Campanile Library and feel we have something really worthwhile to call to the attention of the science teachers. (Sister) Evelyn Beerepoot Librarian John Cozzi, Librarian Midland Avenue Collegiate Institute Scarborough, Ontario I I have just returned home and have had an opportunity to look at the new publication CARET. I found i t very interesting reading and, while there was a good deal of i t I did not understand particularly because I am not able to live up to Jim Widdop's calculations, I did enjoy the whole thing. Campan i 1e - Not re Dame I think you are to be congratulated. Ottawa, Ontario With kindest personal regards, I am, I R. J. Flatt We, the staff and students of the Sheridan Technical School appreciated receiving your complimentary copy of CARET. I t is a welcome addition to our library. Thank you .. V. McDouga11 Teacher-Librarian Sudbury High School Sudbury, Ontario 111 Thank you very much for the two copies of CARET. To enable as many students as possible to have access to these science reviews, we have put cards and pockets in them, and let them out on an overnight basis. These publications are indeed a welcome addition to our library. Vera M. M. Watt, Librarian West Ferris Secondary School North Bay, Ontario I Thunder Bay, Ontario I Thanks very kindly for sending me a copy of CARET, the La.kehead University Science Review. Although not a scientist myself, I gave the magazine a careful look and found several of its articles most interesting. I am particularly delighted that you are printing articles not only from within the University itself, but also from people outside the University. I think this is a very valuable contribution to the development of ideas in Northwestern Ontario. James F. Foulds MPP for Port Arthur New Democratic Party I The information on the colourful "Outer Space" insert in the second issue of CARET needs amendment and correction: [l] Mercury's "rotation" should read 3 �59 days (1965). [2] Venus rotation 243 days retrograde ( 1961). [ 3] "Space ship time schedu.le". The times are based on a speed of 25,000 m.p.h. without considering the time taken to accelerate to that speed or the time to deaccelerate and match velocities with that particular planet. Trajectories in the solar system are approximately sections of elliptical orbits and not straight lines. For minimum energy requirements, tve have: i I LEAVING , EARTH FOR Venus Mars Mercury Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto TIME IN YEARS VELOCITY REQUIRED MPH 2,@ 5,000 2t66 6t[JJ0 0,7b 6,05 13,03 15,000 lB,000 33ll01 22, □□□ 20, □□□ 62,01 23,D□□ 91.aDO 2L;,OOO J. S. Griffith Mathematical-Sciences Department Lakehead University I Thank you for send.ing two copies of CARET, Vol. 1, No. 2P for use in our school library. The articles will be especially valuable to the teachers and to the Grade XIII students who are interested in careers at this stage of their education. Thanking you again and wishing you success i.n this worthwhile undertaking, I amp A 1969 Lakehead University Graduate, FIBRE - THE NEGLECTED FACTOR IN Foon WONG ALL THE RESEARCH THAT HAS BEEN DONE ON FOOD IN ATTEMPTS TO DISCOVER ADEQUATE DIET;, ONE ELEMENT HAS BEEN,, UNTIL RECENTLY,, COMPLETELY I Gl'.QRED: FIBRE. TH IS lill.S BEEN REGARDED t,S A CONTAMINANT y TO BE REMOVED WHEREVER POSSIBLE. NOW., IT IS REALIZED THAT A NUMBER OF DISEASES ,l\N SUFFERED BY LARGE NUMBERS OF IN THE "WESTERN CIVIUZED" PEOPLE PARTS OF THE WORLD ARE DUE TO THE REJViOVAL OF THE HUSKS OF FOOD, PARTICULARLY WHEAT. Endless studies have been under taken to determine the amounts of different food constituents required for the maintenance of health. From time to time, hitherto unrecognized requirements have come to light, adding to the 11st of substances considered necessary for normal body metabolism. But in spite of this search for a total iy adequate d ! et, one of the major elements of all plant foods, consumed ln large quantities by nearly al i human races and by all but solely carnivorous animals, has been almost totally neglected: the fibre, regarded virtually as a dietary contaminant and consequently removed and discarded. Because it ls largely unabsorbed from the 1n t e s t i n e an d so con t ri but es little to nutrltion, the fibre has been considered dispensable and has barely, l f at a ·11, been alluded to in standard textbooks on nutrition. Stockbreeders have appreclated its contribution to animal health, whereas physicians and nutritionists have almost tot a 11 y discounted any role it may play in the human contexL St. Joseph's College Now, we are gradually realizing that this 1 Cindereila 1 of diet:cs deserves promotion to the prominent role for which it 1,,Jas destined, as ln the case North Bay, Ontario I of the fairytale princess. Sister M. Andrea Denis P. Burkitt, MD, Dsc (hons), WE ARE ALWAYS GLAD TO HEAR FROM OUR READERS! 4 - Ed.itor FRCS, FRS, Medical Research Council, London. �THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE SQUAD By A. W. Kruijshoop INTERACTION BETWEEN HIGH SCHX)L AND UNIVERSl1Y STIJDENTS The University of Papua and New Guinea, established in Port Moresby in 1966, now has 1500 students from a11 over the South Pacific studying the norma1 range of subjects in all Faculties in a modern, well-equipped and adequately staffed institution. Secondary education in this country is quite a different chapter. The High Schoo1 system is expanding rapidly and experiences growth pains, despite good efforts by the Government and Church Missions. The High School teacher may find himse1f presented with large classes, a lack of suitable textbooks, domestic and administrative duties, his own dup1 icating jobs and often incomplete laboratory equipment. The basic High School takes four years, but a number of schools are now being converted into Senior High Schoo 1s w i th a six-year programme. Biology, chemistry, geology and physics are taught as parts of an i nt eg rated s c i en c e co u r s e , developed in Papua New Guinea in 1970-71. This course is based on experiments done by students in sma 11 groups fo 11owed by c 1ass room discussion with the more difficult or dangerous experiments done as demonstrations by the teacher. In more advanced courses much mater i a 1 will have to be presented on the blackboard or straight from books because equipment is not available or because the teacher simply cannot afford to spend days of his time preparing a few specia1ized lessons. We in the University felt that by using our expertise and equipment it sh o u 1d be po s s i b 1 e to give more High School students an opportunity to observe new and interesting phenomena and to actually perform certain crucial experiments. With sufficient student support (100% voluntary, no credits or exemptions) we could try to bring a few "morale boosting working sessions" to schools with road access to Port Moresby. TI£ UNIVERSITY SCIENCE SQUAD In August, 1972 the University Science Squad was formed with 25 students and 3 staff members from the Science Faculty. With each new semester there are a few changes in the participating student groups. We set out to prepare a range of two hour experimental programmes suitable for Form Ill and IV High School students. The student members organized themselves into working groups: Mic rob i o 1ogy, E 1e c t r i c i t y a n d Chemistry of the Elements (groups on Mechanics and Geology are projected). Within each group, long discussions took place to draft demonstration out 1 i nes and to work out the technical details. Most work was done during weekends and the mid-semester study breaks. Two experienced High School teachers, one from a Government school and one from a Catholic Mission Schoo), took an active interest in the development of the Science Squad. They attended meetings at the University, described their own curriculum and the difficulties they experienced. It was recognized that the demonstrations would be most meaningful if they were related to the schoo1 1 s current science programme and if the 1eve 1 of complexity was the same or only slightly higher than that of normal teaching. Over the past year three Science Squads have now made visits to High Schools in the Port Moresby area. I n each case, s ix to eight University students set up experiments in one or two High School classrooms. 5 �The teacher divided his class into groups of four to seven students and these small groups then circulated. Each University student acted as a spec i a i i zed 11 gu i dance off i cer 11 for one or more experiments but the High School students were encouraged to do all assemb1 Ing, manipulation, instrument reading, microscope work and calculations. I t w a s important t ha t s t u d e n t s were left to work out the experiments at their own pace without interference or even observation by teachers. They developed interest and initiative and during all visits continued working in a playful but concentrated atmosphere for at 1east an ho u r planned, i . e. l on g e r t ha n w a s outside the norma 1 school hours. Another feature was the degree of participation and small group leadership of the girl students at some of the schools visited. BRIOOING THE GAP The advantages of Un i v er s i t y students and High School students getting together to do and talk about Science are clear. The University students renew links with the schools, gain experience in an informal teaching situation and confidence in their scientific understanding. The High School students see students a few years older than themselves involved with and enjoying Science. Maybe this idea of (privileged!) University students giving fresh inspiration and assistance to schools on a voluntary basis is worth serious consideration 11 back home 11 in (over - ) de v e 1 oped countries as well? The University of Papua and New Port Moresby is an extraordinary undertaking, sponsored by the Government of Gu.inea in 6 Australia. In some ways, the s.i tuation is not unlike that of Lakehead University. The Port Moresby University serves a large area of inhospitable terrain, populated by people with a wide diversity of ethnic and cultural characteristics. The University is relatively new, and is still searching out ways of serving its community. Dr. Kruijshoop has been associated with innovative ideas from the outset, including some ambitious programmes to educate the native peoples with "crash" techniques. The University is a going cultural concern: with the coming of independence, it will be a very influential force in shaping the future of this colourful Nation. □ A QUIET PROPULSION UNIT - THE OTTAWA JOURNAL OF JANUARY 12, 1974 REPORTED THAT HPL ENGINEERING OF OTTAWA WILL TEST THE MARKET IN OTTAWA AND THE SURROUNDING AREA THIS SPRING WI TH A NEW AIR DR IVE UNIT FOR BOATS, SNOW PLANES AND LIGHT HOVERCRAFT THAT IT HAS DEVELOPED. RESEARCH ENGINEER T. APPARAO SAYS THAT THE QT-30 AIR DRIVE IS THE RESULT OF YEARS OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AT HPL WHICHWAS BACKED BY THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL AND MHV INDUSTRIES. HE DESCRIBED THE QT-30 AS A 11 COMPACT., SIMPLE OUTBOARD PROPULSION UNIT THAT ALLOWS BOATS TO BE OPERATED IN INCHES OF WATER'.' IT USES .AN AIR DRIVE OR "OUTBOARD MOTOR WITH .AN AIR PROPELLOR.AND LIGHT - WEIGHT TWO CYLINDER AIR COOLED ENGINE~' THE 11 QUIET THRUST PACKAGE'' CAN BE USED SINGLY OR IN PAIRS; IT IS BOLTED ONTO A PLATFORM OR FRAME ON THE CRAFT. THE QT-30 WAS ORIGINALLY DEVELOPED FOR THE SPECTRA II HOVERCRAFT OF MHV INDUSTRIES. □ �"instrument reading, microscope work and calculations." "getting together to do and talk about science . . . " THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE SQUAD IN DIVERS ACTIVITIES "experiments done by students in small groups . . . " ''participation of the girl students . . " �Above -- Archaelogical dig in progress at Lake Mungo, New South Wales. Above - Measuring the radioactive background level in an ancient aboriginal fire place at Lake Mungo. Dr. Mortlock with one of the sets of thermal um inescent dating apparatus in the Physics Department at the Australian National University in Canberra. The cylindrical glow oven is in the centre and the XY recorder on the bench at the left. Below - A disc covered with fine quartz grains from the object under test positioned on the heating strip inside the glow oven. Below - Some pot sherds from New Ire land in the South Pacific which were subject to thermoluminescent testing and proved to be approximately 2,000 years old. The decoration indicates the advanced culture of the potters. �ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING IN AUSTRALIA By A. J. Mortlock SETTING lHE SCENE Lake Mungo is.an ancient dried up lake located in New South Wa 1es about 70 mnes from Mi1dura and 80 mi 1es fro1n Balranald. It is reachable from either one of these centres by car although the red sand country roads involved would be dJ.ffrcult after heavy rain. As the Lake.ls part of private land holdings, permission to visit needs to be sought from the graaiers of either nearby Joulni or Mungo Stations. Lake Mungo is roughly five• miles in diameter with'a long sand dune thirty or more feet high running around about half of its cf. rcumference on its eastern side. This dune, called the Wal ls of China, was perhaps fifteen feet higher in ancient ti mes and was used by the aborigines as a place to 1 ive when the Lake was ful 1. Erosion of this dune by wind and rain has exposed' a remarkable density of aboriginal artefacts in the fo.rm of fire places, a cremation site, hand tools, etc. Studies of these artefacts have· indicated that the aborigines \-Jere in the area as long ago as 30,000 • years B.C. and probably longer. Archaeologically, therefore, this site is of great importance because it represents the ear 1 i est proven presence of man in• Australia. Our visitwas made in a smal 1 party complete with two excited school chi 1d ren to coincide w i t h a 1 a r g e sca'le excavation investigation of the dune by Professor J. Mu 1vaney. After a long high - speed drive across the Hay Plain we arrived at Mi lduta which we planned to use as a centre. The next day we, set out for Lake Mungo and, after some back tracking near the end of our journey, located the main party at the southern end of the Walls of China. What a fascinating •sight it was! The nea r"".wh i te sand of the dune stretched around and into the far distance encircling the vast utterly flat green floor•of the Lake. Dotted along the dune were smal 1 areas of uneroded soi 1 standing proud of t he surface by a few feet, rather I i ke a toy version of the rock pinnacles of Monument Va 11 ey in Arizona. Here and there were the remains of ancient fire places in the form· of localised collections of blackened residues. These also could be raised up relative to the surrounding sand due probably to the hardening action of the original heating. Underfoot were the shaped stone tools and she 11 fish used and eaten by the original residents. 11-IERr'OLLt11NESCENT DATING We unloaded our car and joined Professor Mulvaney's group to view the way modern archaeological excavation proceeds. A mechan i ca 1 shovel had produced a wide"'trench across the dune by removtlig some five feet or so •Of over -burden and hand work with brushes and small shovels had taken the excavation down to lower levels and thereby to earlier times: the search,. was on.• for Mungo Man. We, ourselves', got out our radioactivity measuring ,equipment to test background levels in the ancient fire places. These determinations are part of our thermo 1um inescent dating studies ln t'hi s area. The technique is new, absolute, and particularly applicable to fired ceramics or baked mud from old' f i re places. In this way, we bi.is i ed ourselves during our stay, talking with the archaelogists ·about the new dating technique. Although scientists fhemse 1ves, they seemed fascinated by the ti'cking of the register,on the portable monitor. The continuing feeling one has while one is there, however, is the eerie connection the place has with the undisturbed and distant past. This feeling is added to by the vastness of the scene, the quietness, and the apparent lack of human habitation. One thinks of those long 9 �agob1ackfe11ows sitting by the edge of this large isolated lake and wonders what thoughts they had about the sun and the night sky above. A dream time to be sure in a place of dreams. ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING USING THl:Rt-'OLlt1INESCENCE The app1ication of the phenomenon of thermoluminescence to the dating of ceramic objects is a relatively new technique which is ga 1n 1ng in popularity because of its abso1ute nature and the apparent ease with which results can be obtained. In actua 1 fact it is not nearly so easy as it first appears, and great care has to be exercised to avoid mis interpreting the data and producing wrong answers. Thermo1uminescence or TL is the 1 i ght given off when a body is heated due to the dissipation of stored internal energy. Black-body radiation accompanies this TL radiation but is distinct from it: b1ack-bodyradiation is always present, but the TL radiation may be 11 g1owed out" during the first heating. The energy storage process which is of interest to us here is due to the presence of smal 1 amounts of rad i oac t i v e imp u ri t i es i n the fa br i c of the ceramic object. The part icu1ar isotopes involved are U-238, Th-232 and K-40. Because the ha1f-1ivesare long (~10 9 years) the fabric of the material receives a constant dose rate due to their presence. This radiation ionizes the constituent minera1 atoms. The resulting electrons can become trapped at other defect centres. Some of these are deep enough for there to be negl igib 1e 1eakage from them over archaeo 1og i ca 1 times. However, on heating, these traps a re emptied and Tl radiation produced. The wavelength of this for quartz is ~4, 200 A. When the ceramic object is first fired during manufacture, the traps are emptied. Over archaeo1ogica1 10 t i mes t h e y s 1ow 1 y f i 11 u n t i 1 a second (laboratory) firing empties them again. The strength of the associated Tl signal is proportional to the rate at which the electrons are emptied out of the traps. By keeping the laboratory heating rate fixed, intercomparison of Tl signals can be made. STANDARDIZATION BY ARTIFICIAL IRRADIATION The propensity of various materials for the production of TL varies. For this reason, samples have to be irradiated with artificial i soto·pes to measure this propensity. We then have a s i mp 1 e e q u a t i on based on proportions 1ead i ng us to the age of the object: NATURAL Tl ARTI FI CI AL TL = NATURAL DOSE ARTIFICIAL DOSE but NATURAL DOSE= AGE x (ANNUAL DOSE RATE) thus AGE = ARTI FI CI Al DOSE • NATURAL TL ART I FI CI Al Tl ANNUAL DOSE RATE The a n nu a 1 dose r a t e , w h i c h should be measured for each object, inc 1udes contributions from not on1y the object itself but from the surrounding soil (if it has been bur i ed) a n d cosm i c ray s . It i s rough 1y 0. 5 rads/yr. Determination of this rate is perhaps the most time consuming part of the dating procedure. TI-E DETAILS The details of the app1 ication of the technq i ue are worthwh i 1e describing. In the case of the dating of an art object such as a sma 11 figure, samp 1es su i tab 1e for testing are obtained by d r i 11 i ng two sma11 holes in an inconspicuous part of the object, for example, the base. The drilling operation �provides a powder wh l ch contains small quartz crystals inwhich most of the TL energy is stored. In what is knownasthe fine grain technique, crystals in the size range 1 to BJ.Jm are selectedbyan l n - liquid sett l i ng procedure and deposited on small aluminum discs. These discs a re then p 1aced in turn on a heating strip in what is known as a glow oven. Each disc is then heated in a highly pure nitrogen gas atmosphere and the 1 i ght given off picked up by a very sensitive phototube. Theoutput from this is fed to the Y-axis of an XY recorder, the X-axis being fed with the temperature data as it r l ses at the rate of 20°c per second to about 500°c. APPLICATIONS One of the simplest appl I cations of the technique ls to the authent l city testing of ceramic art objects. As all that is generally required is to teil whether the object is young or old, it is usu a 1 l y not necessary to measure the rad ioact ive Impurity content: this can be safely assumed. Fakes can be eas l l y detected in this way and l t is becoming i ncreas l ngly common for dealers in expensive art ware of this type to state that a particular object which is for sale has been au t hen t i ca t e d by the technique. There are an amazing number of fakes about, as approximately 50% of the suspect objects submitted for test turn out to be young. Other applications relate to archaeology and, in the case of the Canberra Unit, to the testing of artefacts from around the Pacific Basin and Southeast Asia where the written history is virtually absent. The archaeology of Australia is beginning to benef l t from the technique as it is applicable to the baked hearth mud from aboriginal fireplaces. Theearliestsigns of man inAustralia are at lake Mungo in Western New South Wales. Ev i de nee here indicates that he was present and able to make and use hand tools more than 32,000 years ago. Generally speaking, TL-test l ng has been app1 ied with success to objects ranging in age from 20 to 1Q5-]06years. It is being extended to new materials of interest to the earth scientists as 111el1 as to old bones! These new materials represent cha 11 enges in the sepa ration of wanted from spurious Tl signals and also in specimen preparation, I Dr, Mortlock is a member of the Department of Physics of the Australian National University at Canberra, He has had a life-time of experience in the measurement of low levels of radiation activity; and his recent excursion into the dating of ceramics w i 11, as his article implies, have profound effects on the Australian archaeo- logical scene. I FOSSIL FISH FOUND BY OIL RIG: A 60 mill ion year old fossil, 3 inches (8 cm) long is a species of smelt thought to be new to scientists. It was recently located in a Tertiary formation 2135 m below the seabed of the North Sea during exploratory dr i 11 l ng in the famous Forties oil-field. Geologists work i n g for Br i t l sh Petro I eum recovered the foss i I smelt from a core sample made from the Sea Quest dri 11 ing platform which s ta n d s we 1 1 o u t i n deep water. The smelt probably choked to death swallowing head-first an eel-like fish. The fossil has been sent to the Na t u r a l H i s to r y Mu s e um i n London which possesses one of the finest fossil collections inthe world, and which has not so far found the pr i mo rd i a 1 s me l t I s paral 1e1, !ts bone structure is being given special study.• 11 �The Bursary A general view THE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE OF MALAYSIA IN PENANG The Chancellory The Registry �SCIENCE WITHOUT ELECTIVES By R. J. Julian CAN THE QUESTION BE ANSWERED? I have made the title of this paper a question. If I had written the tit 1e out_ i t wou 1d have been too long. It shou1d read 1 ike this: Should Science Majors only take courses in their field or should they take courses outside their field to become 'well rounded' students? There probably is no answer to this question, but we can look at some of the arguments and some of the advantages of the two different schools of thought. We can first consider that 11 streaming 11 the students provides them with more time to work on their major fie1d. (In this paper we wi11 not consider the question as to how much mater i a 1 an undergraduate s hou 1d cover in his quest for a degree.) The argument is that a student can be more broadly educated in his major field. This means a student not only gets what is considered a 11 basic programme11 , but he reaches further into his f i e 1d and becomes more usefu 1. The second argument is that a student can achieve his goal in a shorter period of time. He does not have to 11waste t ime 11 on subjects that are not related to his programme. EDUCATION AFTER THE DEGREE The a rg umen ts above are very true but we can counter them with some very good arguments. Let us ask the question, "How much of a degree programme is actually used by a graduate?" Most industrialists feel that in receiving a degree, a student has proven that he can be educated. Industry then provides the tr a I n i ng g r o u n d f o r h i m to become educated. If we were to educate a student to fit into all situations after graduation, it would take many, many years. This is not a student who will be productive; just one to fit into a situation. To make a person productive, an industry plans on a six month to two year training period. In this time, he is not being utilized on on1y one concept. He is usua11y sent from sect ion to sect ion to become familiar with the entire system. We can go one step further and consider a move to another industry that is related. The systems may be the same but the processes wi11 surely be different. Again, there is a training period involved to make the new employee fit into the new system. If re1ated industries feel the need for specialized training, how can a university produce the broad training needed to fi11 a11 the needs of a graduate? If we accept this argument, then the university education should consist of a 11 basic programme" that 1ays the ground work for further education. We can argue that th i s i s a found a t i on on which a11 other knowledge is an extension. The basic programme is still undefined, but let us say that the solution of one problem usually leads to the solution of another more complicated problem. I am not advocating a university that does problem-solving. It is the technique in so 1vi ng a prob 1em that is important. A student must be schooled in how to find this technique and then how to app 1y it to various problems. When he has mastered th i s art , he w i 1 1 b e considered capable of being trainab1e in many areas of his field. THE EXPANDING MIND Now let us consider the "wasted 13 �time" on unwanted' subjects. A person must have contact ·w1 th the outside world. He cannot closi! himself Jn a shell made up of his major field. Basically, he··must meet and communicate with other people. Theworld is becoming sma 11 er and a person no longer lives in his own little community without outside contact. If you have never been exposed to the world at large, you cannot communicate with Others. Educational material outside a student's field of study will prepare him to be able to conrnunicate. Again, if we accept this argument, we cannot say that it is "wasted time" to take courses outstde a major field. In conclusion, both sides of the story have a·good case. ft probably depends On one's background as to which one will accept as the best solution.· Maybe a middle-of-theroad solution would benefit the the students themost. After all, th i s i s what educ a t i on i S a 1 1 about. Dr.~- J. Julian is a gradu"te of the Axi~ona State Uni~ersity, wherE! he was awarded a Doctorate for his work on shock waves. He has worked. on several NASA projects, including digital command systems. He has been a Senior Lecturer at the University of Scie~ce, Malaysia stnce 1971, and has beE!n responsible for many innovat:iops in that relatively new ;university.p • MANAG lNG . NO ISE: POLLUTION • BY·ANGELA CROOME The international value of noise research under Dr. D.W. Robin•son, at the National Physical Laboratory near London Airport, hc1s come into particular prominence lately. The endeavours to ach i. eve an acceptab 1e noise level for cars and lorries and to introduce standards for busy 14 airports is being tackled on a worldwide basis. One b r a n ch of t h e NP L no i s e research relates to the measurement of airport noise so that mean i ngfu 1 standards may be produced for t.he allowable din that aircraft engines may make on take - off and 1anding. This is when they cause the maxi m1Jm disturbance t~ the community. Whether Jt is a fine or a wet day makes more difference to the propagation of noise and, therefore, to peop 1e's percept ion thar;, a few dee i be 1s mo.re or 1 ess in the absoJ.ute ,noise .level' of a jet engine. The 'sc,me sort. of factors< apply :to the propagation of motorway noise to nearby ho1,15es. Dlstance away and noise level are not of governing importance; ac;ornfield in front of the.house (which tends to break up and absorb the freguenctes), and garages ln tfie gaps,1,etween houses (which reflect the sciund back}, have a d,~c is i)'e) n f 1 uence. R~\iab le 'prediction ofwhat the noi~e burd.en on p~C>p 1e, w,i11 be i s.Jhe over r i Qi ng reqt,ilrement. . . . ..·.... NPL work has now p rqduced a ~o i se Pol,lution Level Index (the initials quaintly come out NPLI !) which .rela.tes the phys i ca I descr ipt i or, of different noise.envi ronme11ts to the subjective react io11 of peop 1e. It mal<.es pqss ible the prediction qf noise nuisance a.nd the reaction to it without, for instance, having to build an a~rport handling a jumbo jet a minute to' find out what the neighbours will think. t>Noise pollution had low priority at the UN Env;ironment Conference at Stockholm. In world terms, there were more urgent considera,1:i ons t:.o be tackled by the international delegates. Nonetheless nois.e nuisance is an increasing problem with a number of international aspects. Work on the complex character of noise is continuing.~ ,; _, - REPRODUCED FRCJ1 'SPECTRUM', BRITISH SCIENCE NEWS NO. 95. �BIOMECHANICS - Y By B. R. AMECHANICS Seth Rapid advances in cybernetics, information theory and servomechanism are now making it possible to study the most perfect machine in the world, ca11ed the human body. The problem is to be tackled by rheologists, phvsicists, psychologists, anthropologists, etc. It is, therefore, high time that at conferences of scientists we pay some attention to Yoga Meehan i cs whose frag ranee seems to have spread a11 over the world. This will involve both the macro and micro fields and their interactions. The impact of strong impulses on the senses and the reaction of the brain centres can form the subject matter of many good Ph.D. theses. Yoga ta 1k has become a fashion a 11 over the world. Its physical and men ta 1 benefits a re being advertised and presented in a mystic atmosphere. To become scientific and available to all, it should be developed as a contro11ed discipline. Its study is to be objective and experiments are to be conducted on the body itself. AH modern e 1ect ron i c techniques w i 11 be necessary. The corrosive effect of anger and pass ion impulses, the retardation due to frustration forces, the exhi1aration resulting from success and appreciation, all need quantitative measurement. A number of eye 1es with definite cent res exist in the body. Their study involves problems of system dynamics and can bring about appreciable harmony and synthesis in human relationships. Man is being pounded with all types of forces incessantly, resulting in i n tern a 1 con f 1 i ct , which on 1y a scientific study can resolve. The human body is to become a mo re important 1aboratory than Skylab and the thought .. waves investigated can have ave loci ty greater than that of 1 i g ht. I s i t no t very ex c i t i n g to know t ha t t he Con s c i o u s En e r g y in the body i s out to cont ro 1 t he Universe? Yoga Meehan i cs may r eve a 1 new laws of the following types: [1] Every space-time point in the universe can be explored indefinite) y due to i ts inf i n i t e connect i v i t y . {2] A11events are neutral and interconnected and the individual framework decides their nature. [3] The force of hat red affects the source more than its target. [4] Each event is the result of global optimization by Nature. I The Editor met Dr. Seth on an Air India Viscount en route from Calcutta to Dibrugarh, a university town at the eastern extremity of the beautiful tea-growing Province of Assam. I t was not unti 1 we were nearly at the gates of the University that Dr. Seth let drop the fact that he was indeed the ViceChancellor. He has since left to take on the Directorship of The Birla Institute where he is responsible for charting the course of research in applied science which is so necessary for the development of India. Dr. Seth is a charming gentleman, a highly respected mathematician, and a skilled administrator. As his article demonstrates, he is greatly concerned with the relationship between Eastern and Western philosophies: we should listen carefully to what he has to say, for he has much to teach us. I "GOVERN\1ENT DEPARTMENTS, SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE AREAS, UNIVERSITIES, GROUPS OF UNIVERSITIES AND INDUSTRIAL CORPORATIONS ALL CONSTITUTE ORGANIZATIONAL COLLECTIVITIES WHICH MUST BEGIN TO COMMUN I CATE ABOUT MATTERS OF SCIENCE AND SECTORAL PARTICIPATION. IT WILL I NVAR I ABLY BE A PROCESS BASED ON PERSUASICX\J, NEGOTIATIQ\J AND TIMECONSUMING FRUSTRATIONS." - G. Bruce Doern. 15 �The Birla Institute of Technology. "Yoga talk has become a fashion all over the world . . . " Dr. Khanna "increasing lawlessness and disorder in the universe." Mr. Bobrov "the planning of the national economic development should proceed from the outline of future scientific and technological progress." Graham Chandler "my actual job is a mixture of things . . " �THE ENERGY DILEMMA By G-A. Gr in ELECTRICITY AND WELL-BEING It becomes more and more apparent that providing Switzerland with s u ff i c i en t e 1ec tr i c energy cou 1d prove to be one of the serious problems of the next decade. The importance of an adequate energy supply can certain 1y not be minimized w h e n , i n 1 a r g e pa r t , the socioeconomic we11-being of the country is at stake. SWISS REALISTS VERSUS IDEALISTS As elsewhere, the quest ion has degenerated in to a confrontation between, schemat ica11y speaking, two categories of human beings: on the II 11 one hand, the rea 1 is ts - or those whose foremost concern is with the n ea r fut u re ; on the o t he r , the 11 11 idealists - or those thinking in terms of generations. Too often, unfortunate1y, the debate - if one can s pea k of a de b a t e - has been marred by subjectiveness and emot iona1 ism, if not a lack of honesty or simply incompetence. There is another pecu1iar aspect to this matter. Although e 1ectr i city covers only 15% of Switzer1and 1 s over a 11 energy requirements, the controversy centers primari 1y on its future,and not on the situation as a whole, characterized by a heavy re 1 i an ce on o i1 , a 11 of i t imported . To compound the problem, this same portion of Switzerland's energy supply, a1ways regarded as secure and entirely indigenous, by virtue of the famous mountain dams, must now depend both on the acceptance by the population and on foreign supplies for the essential part of the equipment, as we11 as the fuel. We a re ta 1 king, of course, about nuc1ear-fission power plants which have been chosen as the on 1 y acceptab 1e alternative at present to cover the ever increasing demand anticipated for electricity. TH: :MSIC FACTS At this point, it might be useful to refer to some basic facts concerning production and consumption of e 1 ectr i city in Switzerland. What comes out clearly is that if the beginning of construction of a second group of nuclear power stations is further delayed, Switzer1and w i 1 1 face the prospect of electricity shortages, starting in 1975-76. In this connection, it may be encouraging to report that some serious thinking is now devoted to the formulation ofa national energy pol icy, which would comprise, especia11y for electricity, generation, distribution, and in some way, consumption. Under consideration, together with the siting problem of future power plants, is the poss i b i 1 i t y o f co u p 1 i n g the n u c 1 e a r production of electricity with remote central heating of apartments and offices, as we11 as industrial use of therma1 energy. As is we11 known, s i mi 1a r prob 1ems , though indifferent connotations, are bound to affect most industrial nations, including the United States. What is striking also, is the rapidly increasing international interdependency w i th its man i fo 1d po 1 it ica 1 imp 1 i cations, c re a t e d by the overa 11 growing demand for energy. A good case can certainly be made for trying to curb the excessive demands for energy, especia11y as far as 1osses and wastes are concerned. However, it is probably not realistic, at least not at this stage, to ca11 for a halt to any further increase, particu1ar1y as regards electricity which, by most accounts, will see its relative role strengthened by, among other reasons, the necessity to better protect the environment,an undertaking which is said to require more energy, mainly in a 11 c1ean 11 form. 17 �OPPOSITION TO NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY Conversely, it shou1d be admitted by the a 11-out proponents of nuc 1ear energy that not a 11 of their opponents• apprehensions are i rr at i ona 1 or i 1 1 - f o u n d e d . I n d e e d , more should be learned and probably disseminated on safety prob1ems connected with the operation of ever larger nuc 1ear power p 1ants ( for example, the emergency core cooling system). Even if an accident, of one kind or another, appears high1y unlikely, it is advisab1e, especially among professionals and men of reason, to foresee possible consequences and take preventive measures wh i ch co u 1d i n c 1 u d e do i n g more res ea r ch on t he s a f e t y a s p e c t s . Among the future headaches of the nuclear industry are the treatment and storage of a gr ow i n g amount of highly radioactive byproducts generated by nuclear reactors, incl ud i ng the ext rem e 1 y tox i c a n d Jong-Jived plutonium, the prime fuel of the future breeders. C1ear Jy , t he p r o b 1 em o f s i t e select ion in Swi tzer1and has been further complicated by the obligation to resort, henceforth - along the Aar and the Rhine - to huge and inaesthetic cooling towers. Only the future wi11 tell if the government decision in the matter was unduly conservative. Since the time is not yet ripe for the fast breeder reactors (either sodium or gas-coo1ed) to take over from the present ones (mostly 1 ight water), the high temperature gas-coo1ed concept cou1d we11 p1ay a significant role in the meantime; it is especia11y attractive for Swiss industry, due to its anticipated use in association with gas turbines. Furthermore, now that the Canadian heavy water type i s r e g a i n i n g s om e momentum, one might doubly regret that the Swiss reactor venture ( l u ce n s) d i d n o t fa r e t o o we 1 1 • 18 Thi s 1 i ne WO u 1d have provided a va1uab1e interim a1ternative, at 1east with respect to the crucia1 fuel supp1y prob1em (natural versus enriched uranium). ARE NEW TECH'JOLOGIES THE ANSWER? New, yet-to-be-developed technologies might he1p solve the 1ate,nt energy crisis. We are a 11 ud i ng h e r e no t on 1y t o c o n tro11ed thermonuclear fusion or to magnetohydrodynamics, about which a r ea sona b 1e 1e v e 1 o f r e s e a r c h efforts ought to be maintained a 1so in Switzerland (in cooperation with other countries), but likewise to refined classical processes and less explored methods. At any rate, the problem is there and the nu c 1 ear controversy goes on. Among the latest news on the subject can be mentioned that the Federal Office of Energy in Switzerland - fol )owing in the footsteps of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission -- has decided on a more restrained ro1e than before, leaving the utilities in the forefront of the contention. The double role of promoting nuclear power generation and regulating it has 1ed to some difficult, nearly schizophrenic, situations. The functioning of society - its institutions in particular - is increasingly put under severe test by such problems. The difficulties probab1y 1 ie there as much as in techno 1ogy, if not more so. It is undeniab1e that a commitment to nuclear energy, as necessary as it may be, is an act of faith in the wisdom of man. I Dr. Grin is Scientific Counsellor to the Embassy of Switzerland in Washington. 1111 �HEAT, ENTROPY and LA By K. M. Khanna MEASURING "DISTI..ru3ANCE" IS DIFFICULT In the early days of science, it was assumed that temperature is a measure of disturba:nae of a system and that the temperature must rise when a certain amount of heat is given to the system. But the processes of boi 1 ing and me 1 ting at constant temperatures established the fact that in some processes heat may be added to the system, but the temperature may not rise. The amount of heat given to the system at the me1ting or bo i 1 i ng point was given the name 1atent (hidden) heat. But this nomenclature and concept did not so1ve the problem of the measure of disturbance which the adding of heat brings about in the system. Certain 1y when a so 1 id me 1 ts into a 1iquid or a liquid evaporates into a gas, its heat content increases (it is a more loosely bound system or its constituents have larger amp] itudes of vibration) and the disturbance in the system is large. The question arose 11 lf heat is not the measure of disturbance, then what measures the disturbance or disorder that comes about due to the addition of heat to a system?" In fact, whether heat is added at constant temperature or the temperature changes, the disorder of the system definite1y increases. The quantity that is a measure of the disorder in the system is cal led entropy (s). If dQ is the amount of heat added to the system at constant temperature, T, then the change in entropy of the system ds = dQ/T. If no change in temperature takes place, dQ is s imp 1 y the latent heat. If the temperature~changes, a more general equation for the variation of entropy is obtained by the integration of LESSNESS the equation above 2ds = a2-s1 = f2dQ 1 T f1 (l) Most of the processes in the universe are irreversible, barring a few of them 1 i ke me 1 t in g and evaporation which are reversible. In an·irreversibleprocess,we do not get back to precisely the starting point, if we reverse the course of events - for example, running a refrigerator as a heat pump. Whereas for a reversible process, we do get b<jck to the starting point if we wait long enough. The parameters in deciding whether a process is reversible are pressure, temperature, heat flow and so on. SQ\E LAWS ARE NECESSARY Now to d es c r i be t he t he rm a 1 behavior of a physical system, we need some laws and they are called the 1aws of thermodynamics. A large number of therma1 concepts are integrated into simple looking equations. To understand the laws of thermodynamics, it is necessary to have a clear perspective of the thermal variables involved. The equations connecting the various thermal variables 1ead to the different laws of thermodynamics. THE LAWS OF THERrmYNN-1ICS (i) ZERO LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS It states that if any two bodies are separately in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body11 these two bodies are in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other also. It means that when two bodies are in thermodynamic equi 1 ibrium, the thermodynamic variables which describe the behaviour of the body are the same for the two bodies 19 �concerned. Of the large number of thermodynamic variables, we have to choose a few which could give areasonable equation that could be called a 1aw of thermodynamics. The The thermodynamic variables cou 1 d be t he i n t e r n a 1 e n e r g y U , t h e pressurep, the volume V, the temperature T, the entropy sand so on. If we look at the equation of state of an ideal gas, pV = RT, we find that the state of the gas cou 1d be known i f we know any two of the three thermodynamic variables involved. In the same manner given a thermodynamic equation one can find out the independent thermody nam i c v a r i a b 1 e s r e q u i r e d t o determine the state of a thermodynamic system. Each thermodynamic equation represent i n g a 1aw of thermodynamics wi 11 indicate the nature of thermodynamic variables required to represent the state of a thermodynamic system. After having said so much about the thermodynamic state, it could be said that the 'zero law of thermodynamics' is a self-evident fact. (ii) FIRST LAW OF THERflODYNAMICS The first 1aw of thermodynamics is just a restatement of the 1aw of conservation of energy p1us the add it iona 1 inforrnat ion that heat is a form of energy. Newton 1 s 1aws imp 1y that a 11 energy is mechan i ca 1 and that this energy is conserved. But soon situations arose where mechanical energy was not conserved and it was part 1y converted into other forms of energy, 1 ike electromagnetic energy, heat energy, etc. and thus var i o us forms of energy came to be known, and the 1aw of cons er vat ion of energy was restated by saying that the sum t o t a 1 o f a 1 1 f o rm s o f energy is a constant. If an amount of heat energy dQ is given to a system such that its 20 internal energy is increased by dU and an externa 1 work dW is done, then dQ = dU + dW (2) Th i s e q u a t i o n i s k now n a s the First Law of Thermodynamics. The changes in the internal energy of the system a re governed by some perfect laws which determine the internal dynamics of the system. Thus dU does not depend upon the path of change. For instance, if U is a function of any two thermodynamic variables x and y, then whetherxchanges first or y changes first, keeping the other variab1e constant, the value .of dU is the same. Expressed ana1ytica11y (3) When the above equation is va1 id, is said to be a perfect differential. But dQ depends upon the mode of absorption of heat, i . e. whether heat is absorbed, for instance, at constant volume or at constant pressure. Hence, the value of dQ depends upon the path of change or dQ is not a perfect differentia1. Eqn. (2) can be restated in another way also. The system can be assumed to possess just one pool of energy, and that is the internal energy U. Contribution to U comes from the input of both mechan i ca 1 energy and heat energy. During any quasi-static process, any change i n U, 1. e . d U , i s predetermined and it is equa 1 to the difference between dQ and dW. Thus both dQ and dW are imperfect differentials. dU (iii) SECCX'ID LAW OF THERtJODYNftMICS Eqn. (1) is said to be the ana1ytica1 form of the second 1aw of thermodynamics wh i ch states �that heat cannot of itself flow from bodies at lower temperatures to bodies at higher temperatures. Si nee bod i es at higher tempera~ tures wil1 have more heat content and, therefore, more entropy, they w i 11 be more d l so rd er 1 y. The second law of thermodynamics could thus be restated in the following way: only a more disorderly system can spare heat which can easily flow to a less disorderly system and the reverse is not possible. ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW We now conclude our article by correlating the concept of entropy and the Second law of Thermodynamics with the increasing lawlessness and disorder in the universe. The concept of entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics assert that it is difficult to convert an orderly system Into a more orderly system by drawing heat or entropy out of it, but it is easy to convert it into a disorderly system by pumping heat or entropy into it. Si nee most of the processes that are taking p 1ace in the universe are i rrevers i b 1e, and entropy increases in an irreversible process, the disorder or lawlessness in the universe is increasing. It would appear that the increasing disorder or i.aw:essness in the universe ls a consequence of the laws of thermodynamics and ls thus a natural process. Dr. K. M. Khanna is Professor of Applied Physics at the Birla Institute of Technology,. Ranchi, India. H.is fields of research are Theoretical Nuclear Physics, Statistical Mechanics, Low Temperature Physics and Spa.ce Sciences.Ill MARINE AND FRESH WATER ECOLOGY MONITORING PROGRAMS ··• !n general, the discharge of pollutants into lakes, rivers, estuaries and oceans will reduce the dlversity of animal and plant species, causing certain species to dominate others in the competition for food and habitat.. By regular quantitative examination of the animals and plants in areas receiving pollutants, the effects on the biotic community can be determined. Sessile (attached) animals and plants are particularly useful organisms for monitor lng pollution. They are unable to avoid pollutants, thus changes in their community structure may be related to particular pol1utants if other control I ing and limiting env i ronmental factors are knowno RECENT COASTAL t'lARINE AND ESTUARINE STUDIES - B.C. Research biologists with expedence in intertidal and subtidal benthic ecology have ca f f led out ecological programs along the Paci f le coast. i n one study , an assessment was made of the effects of the sewage effluent from the Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District I s o 'J t fa J l at Iona ls land. Animal and plant communities i'Jere mon l to red in rel at !on to the outf a 11; sediment cher.d stry (organic matter, nutrients and metals)and particle size were related tofaunal distribu·· tion while wind data, together with the resu,t of drogue studies, was used to determ I ne the effluent dis·pers io~i An lm:ertidal baseline study was carried out In 1973, on an area located west of Vancouver for which recreationa: development was being planned. The results of the study were used to predict the probable consequences of t~e development. A study being undertaken at the present time includes an assessment of the effects of oil refinery effluent on marine lntert lda1 and subtidal biotic communities, a o 21 �AN INTERVIEW WITH GRAHAM CHANDLER , DEPUTY REGISTRAR OF THE UN IVERS I TY OF SALFORD, ENGLAND f i 11ed in by the student. On it, he is a11owed to name five universities, in order of priority: or perhaps the first one or two he wou 1d most 1 i ke to go to, and the other three he is about equa11y expectant about, and there are various permutations that can be indicated on the form. In no sense does the Centre contro1 his choice. us: How long have you been in Canada at the moment? C: Six weeks. Us: What is visit? C: the purpose of your I am here because I have a Commonwea 1th Fe 11 ows h i p f r om t h e Association of Commonwea 1th Universities which is part of a scheme that they run to encourage administrators in the Commonweal th to v Is it one another I s countries to find out something about various administrative arrangements and problems. I am here in Canada because it has been a country that has always interested me, in that I had a1ready read something about experiments, innovations and changes in the Canadian higher educational system. I was interested in, for example, the University of Toronto's unicameral system of government and the reports of the Ontario Commission on Post Secondary Education. There are many areas I wanted to find out about. Us: I wonder i f you could just repeat what you said about your early days at Aberystwyth, and then we will take i t from there. C: Yes. We 11 the work was concerned with the admission of students, primarily; prior to the format ion of the centra1 council. Us: Is that a central council fox admissions in Wales only? C: No, it is for the whole United Kingdom: it serves a11 universities and an subject areas within universities. Us: I see well, how do the universities divvy up the students, how do they decide who goes where? C: 22 They have the tota 1 res pons i bi 1 i ty for decision in that a11 the Centre does is to ensure that on 1y one a pp 1 i cat i on form is Us: Now I got a bit ahead of you. Is in fact the system changing now? C: It is not changing. What I was referring to was the fact that I had experience in admissions work before there was any cent ra 1 system at a11, when a11 universities were in a free - for-a11 situation, and each university had i ts own a pp 1 i ca t i on form . Students at the high school 1eve1 would app1y to as many as ten or perhaps a dozen un ivers i ti es, and no one u n iv er s i t y would know which students were in fact coming. Us: Can I ask whether in your opinion i t is better to have a free-forall system ox a central system? Or perhaps there is some even better system that should be adopted? C: I have no doubt about it; it is much better to have a centra1 system. It is easier for the student, it saves him time and effort (and a certain amount of money) ; it is s imp 1e and it is infinitely better for the universities because there is a very good information system associated with the Centre, so they know at any one time what is the position with regard to any one s tu dent who hp s app 1 i ed . They know if another university on his list has made him an offer, they know what his rep 1y was to that offer, and they are �kept up to date at fortnightly interva1s with regard to all the students who have app 1 i ed to them - so they are in a much better information posit ion. The Centre a 1so produces something ca 11 ed a c1 ea ri ng s y s t em w h i c h a pp 1 i es toward the end of the app 1 i cation cycle, and which assists those students who have not found a place: this helps the universities to soak up vacant places. Us: Have you become familiar with the Ontario high school system? C: Only at second hand. us: Have you got any impressions from university admissions officers and faculty members about problems in Ontario high schools? Don't answer this i f you don't want to! C: I have. What I have been told from time to time is that things are more difficult for your universities than for ours. There have been great changes in the high schools, including a departure from an examination which involves external assessment. There has been a move toward more 1oca1 assessment, in other words, marking by the teachers in their own schools. This does seem to cause prob 1ems that we do not have to deal with. us: You are a university officer of great experience. I f you, in Great Britain, were to face the problem of assessing marks obtained from a school in a small village in the wilds of Wales and another school nominally at the same level in Cardiff, how happy would you feel? C: I would not feel happy at al 1. I think what might happen would be the reintroduction of the un ivers i ty-conducted entrance examination. I t did ex i s t at one ti me, but most universities dropped it some time ago. If the standards of grading in the schools were to become var i ab 1e, the uni vers i ties would reluctantly be forced into the position of running entrance exams. But remember, we are stil 1 talking about an elite system-very much so- in simple statistical terms, a very small proportion of the university age group reaches university in the United Kingdom. Us: Yes. I think that is true. Expatriates like me tend to equate the Canadian and u.K. systems forgetting that the constituency here is much wider. Going on from this, we are introducing options lower and lower in the system: in other words, students are allowed to select their subjects at a much earlier age, even now they are already selecting subjects at the Grade 11 level, which means that they may be coming into university with great gaps in their education from our point of view. Now at the university level, there is a very wide range of options in what we call major fields. Is there a trend towards options in the United Kingdom? C: Yes, there is a trend towards options, a trend towards the introduction of more i nterdiscipl inary courses which in turn wi 11 introduce a great degree of choice. But I would not 1 ike to say that it has gone a very 1ong way yet. The backbone of the un i ve rs i t y system i s s t i 1 1 t h e standard three-year honours degree . Ex p e r i men t a t i o n w i t h other arrangements is st i 11 on a moderate scale. Us: Do you have a two - year general degree? C: No. That, to my know1edge,does not exist. We have or d i n a r y degrees and genera 1 degrees, the 1atter with not many students in them, usua 11 y designed as a safety net to catch students who a re not making the grade. Us: Is there anything in particular that you would like to comment on, on the general tone .... you can see what I am trying to get 23 �for the high school students. Is there anything you think should be said that would be useful to them? C: Weil .... I was quite interested in the Ontario App 1 ications Centre at Guelph. Us: We, at Lakehead, hate it! C: What interestedmeabout it was that obviously in its orig l ns it was based on a model very close to the U.K. system ..... Us: That's right. C: .... but had responded since to local situations, which has changed its function remarkably. The original intention was to have a c1earing system but this was not des i rab 1e, and now there is a "drop and add 11 sys tern wh lch goes a long .... a student can at any time tel1 the Centre which university he is dropping, and which he is adding on. On the whole, it reflects a situation where there are more places than students .... that is not to say that we do not have this; we do in some areas, but they are in selected areas. They tend to be in areas 1 ike physics and engineering where i t is di fficult to fi11 places. us: Our engineering situation is is quite different from yours, because you have two channels by which people can get into engineering: one through the certificate system and the other the degree system. I had hoped that when the community colleges were started here we should produce something equivalent to the Higher National Certificate in engineering, but that has not in fact happened, and the tendency is for people who would get HNC in the U.K. to get a degree here. C: 24 lncontrasttothesedi ties, we have very large numbers of candidates wanting to get into the arts faculties, social sciences, and into bio1ogica1 science; and of course into the professional subjects like law, medicine and dentistry. For example, at my last university, Nottingham, where I was very ciose l y associated with admissions work, the department of law admitted fifty people out of two thousand a pp l i cat ions . I t is still a very selective system. There isone interesting contrast. We have not developed the high schoo 1 l ia I son sys tern; we do not send represent at i v es out to individual high schools on a formal regulated basis. What takes place is that most of the schools have something which they ca11 a Careers Convention, and they will invite representatives of employers of all kinds - loca ·1 government, ci vi 1 service and various industrial companiesto send representatives to talk about the jobs they have for school leavers in their organ izations. Now, at the same time, they also invite a neighbouring university to send someone to talk about universities, adml ssions criteria and so on. One man win go by himself to that school to take part in a wide careers convention on behalf of a 11 un Ivers it i es, and he wi 1 l be discouraged from ta 1 king about a particular university - including his own! In no sense do we have mass invasions of the high schools, where representatives of a 11 u n i v er s l ti es make make their pitch. Us: That is a very interesting distinction. Now, could you tell me something about your job? C: My present job is one in which I look after a section of the administration of the University Salford, which is called the Academic Division. It broadly covers all academic administration; that is to say the admission of students.their records and examinations,andit also provides �the committee secretariat for the Senate and its subcommittees. There is another division which looks after the Council Secretariat, equivalent.to the Board of Governors and is also concerned with central services I i ke te 1ephones and ma i 1 sys terns as wel 1 as doing all thee.personnel work. There is ~{f4r-t#lef'. Finance O i v i s ion, wh i:~'h. deals with pay ro 11 and s i miJst i tf!~S. The difference befireen ,(>ur ... system and yours is that there is rather more of the tradition of the professional civil service in the universities; the Vice Chancellor is the equivalent. to your President, he is the senior administrator. He is almost always a man of some academic distinction. Below him are • the administrative staff. The usual situatio~ is that the officers are professional administrators and not academics. The Registrar at my institution is the single senior officer be1owtheViceChancellor in the administrative structure and he in turn has a number of deputies · wh9 look after those areas. thc1t I have describecft Very briefly, my job is a mJxture of things that f:.1:io in iny capacity of Secr~tary of Senate ( I prepare tl}e,..;.:~·gend, ;,~d expedJte the busJnes!{ of S~nate) and fa 1so haveasupervisory role in)hat have r:i ine graduate ass ist~nts who d·ivfde tlJe .. wqrk among thems .. j i s . Tm'e y ·: b r i n~g· ·m7:,, he Jr prtiblems. from t im.e.·tq timrt·......... . r ~J f Y,s:, ·:cp a;J~t""e u~:!V,J?£$,i. ty ?J,f{,,:r.~'/tlla.f::c. wou;/;,'1,1tl>e ~v.iyi,1E?nt; t;o>., Vi.::9e Pr~s!1dent;;, ... tha1ttis wnaa,+t . w.ould a~ui-Jt > 1;/;, .:_ y~"u do ~~j ,~ v~ t<i> comment! C: I agree. Us: Could we come back to the tran- sition from high school to university for a moment? We have the concept of schooling in Great Britain; that students are very much "streamed" and that when a student comes to the end of high school, he knows exactly what stream he wants to enter in the university, and what degree he can look forward to, how long he has to take and whcJ,t job he wants after he '''fitI,.shes. Is this true, or is it' a fa.,~se impression? C: • ft ls something of an exaggerat h>.n. There is no doubt however that.h~ is streamed into rather qroad "streams; that is to say' that by the t i me the student gets. t.<>. what wou 1 d be the eg~'l"~fibt of your Grade 13, oui,,,Jxth form, he has made cerfa:la\f i na I choices about :$ttl>J ~c:t;s of study, and broad 1y S'peakiri!h it is still true that he will be, for example, very much on the science side, and will typically be reading .... Us: what do you mean by "reading;'? C: ' 1studying 11 ! ''takl'ng 11 ! ... three main school subjects, in which he wi 11 be examined by an external examiner. If he is on the science side, he will probably be taking something 1 ike chemJ s..t ry, physics and math~!}laflf~J,or chemistry, physlcs,.an<f:,ef>io.logy. A student on the arts side wi 11 ~e t°'ki ng three arts subjects, for example, Engl i'sh, history .a nd;pe rhap s geography. Jneseare national exams. which qualify for a ·general certifi.'cate of Education,. • • Us:';';:see•f;batwe have run out;cof ,f':i.me: there will be a lot"·.c;o:f questi:orls stir.ring i11 the mJ~d; of qur readers, and I hop~ they ,"(:il°.lt'write in aJ?put them.I/appy .:,I,a.n.q~,ngs ! □ •• .,,,,,, fl • • • I THOUiHT THAT THE SCIENCES CONTAINED IN BOOKS ... COMPOSED AS THEY ARE ... ARE FURTHER REMOVED FROM TRUTH THAN THE SIMPLE INFERENCES WHICH A MAN OF GOOD SENSE . . . DRAWS RESPECTING THE MATTERS OF HIS EXPERIENCE ... fl Descartes. 25 �In the U.S.S.R. research work is becoming a necessary element of college curricula from the first year of study. There are now over 200 students' design groups which are fulfilling the orders of different mills and factories. A university and dozens of colleges and vocational schools graduating students in over 150 fields have been opened in Kirgizia (Kirgiz S.S.R.) where people did not have their written language before the re vol u ti on. A practical lesson in the water problems laboratory of Frunze Polytechnical College. (Kazakh S.S.R.) �THE ORGANIZATION AND MANA E ENT OF SCIENCE IN THE U.S.S.R. By E.S. Bobrov SPEED UP OF SOUGHT SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IS In describing the current system of the organization and management of Soviet Science, let us start from the administrative agencies. In the USSR Supreme Soviet - the highest organ of 1eg is lat ive power the functions of deputies' control over the elaboration and imp1ementat ion of scientific pol icy are discharged by the Standing Commission of the Soviet of the Un ion and Soviet of the Nationalities for pub 1 i c education, science and cu l tu re. A t t he i r s e p a r a t e and joint sessions, the commissions of both chambers hear reports by the chiefs of ministries and departments on their activities in managing scientific and techno1ogica1 progress. The main functions in the field of managing the development of science and technology a re discharged by the USSR Counci 1 of Ministers, the highest organ of executive power. Today there is hardly a section of the Council of Ministers' activities unrelated, directly or indirectly, to the problems of science and technology. According to the Directives of the 24th CPSU Congress, the chief goal of the 9th Five-Year P 1an {1971-1975) is to ensure a substantia1 growth of the people 1 s 1 iving and cultural standards on the bas is of the high rate of development of socia1 ist production, its growing efficiency, scientific and technological p r o g res s, and the a cc e 1 e r a t e d growth of Jabour productivity. Proceeding from this, the Directives provide for speeding up the rates of scientific and technological progress, ensuring the imp1ementat ion of a single technical pol icy, developing fundamental and app1 ied research in every way and int rod uc i ng t he i r resu1ts into the national economy more promptly. These tasks have been set, on the whole, to three state organs - the State Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers for Science and Technology (GKNT), the State P 1an n i n g Comm i t tee o f t h e US S R Council of Ministers (GOSPLAN of the USSR) and the USSR Academy of Sciences (AN of the USSR). While the USSR Academy of Sciences, the country's top scientific institution, coordinates fundamental research; the USSR State Planning Committee plans the use of the achievements of science and technology and carries on a single state scientific and techn ica 1 po1 icy. PLANNING DEVELOPMENT The State Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers for Science and Technology determines the main trends of the development of science and technology in the count ry , o r g a n i z e s r e s e a r c h i n to i n t e r - b r a n c h s c i e n t i f i c and techni ca 1 prob 1ems, ensures the growing effectiveness of research and a prompt use of the achievements of science and tech no 1ogy i n the national economy, organizes scientific and tech n i ca 1 information and carries out international scientific and technica1 cooperation. The State Committee for Science and Technology g i v es technical and economic appraisal to the level of deve 1opmen t of science and technology in individua1 branches and takes measures for speeding up scientific and technological progress and for development of the scientific organization of 1a bou r i n the co u n t r y . I n p u r suance of these aims, it selects, 27 �jointJy with the USSR Academy of Sciences, Ministries and Departments, the most promising resu1ts of fundamental research, organizes their realization by the branch research i n st i tut es and the designing bureaus, maps out the fields of application and the met hods of i n t r o d u c i n g r e s e a r c h findings into production. The State Commit tee for Science and Techno 1ogy pays special attention to contro1 the ti me 1y int rod u ct ion of the achievements of science and technology which are of the greatest importance. The ro1e played by the State Committee for Science and Techno1ogy as the leading organ of state policy is confirmed by the fact its Chairman is Vice-Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers, a member of the Centra 1 Committee of the CPSU (CC·CPSU), a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Howe v e r , the entire work of the State Committee is co11ective. The resolutions of the State Committee are adopted by its board which, besides the highranking officials of the Committee it se 1f, i n c 1 u des author i tat i v e representatives of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Ministries and Departments. In his work, the Chairman of the State Committee for Science and Technology has the assistance of his deputies on various prob 1ems; in turn , the de put i es are in charge of departments and functional boards and a 1 so the composite departments of the scientific and technical p1an. than 5500 members of councils and their sect ions, of whom 1 60 a re academicians and corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, more than 1000 doctors and 1600 candidates of sciences. The 1earned counc i 1 s hear and discuss reports by chiefs of technical boards of ministries and departments, directors of institutes and individual scientists on the state of research into various problems in the USSR and abroad. They map out the basic research trends in the interests of the earlier solution of the prob1em, work out recommendations on the ways of the practical use of the resu 1ts obtained and of the latest scientific and technical achievements, adopt decisions on stopping the research jobs which have no prospect of success. It is obvious that such problems cannot be solved on a mere1y administrative basis, and the counci1s play an especia11y great role here as the organ of scientific examination. In their activities, the learned counci 1s of the State Committee for Science and Technology are connected with the learned counc i1 s of the USSR Academy of Sci enc es (many leading scientists are members of both counc i 1s), with the scientific and technical councils of Ministries and the appropriate branch boards and departments. 1-DLDING THE REINS ON RESEARCH Ranking very prominently in the work of the State Committee for learned counci 1s, dea 1 i ng with key comp 1 ex and i n t e r - b r a n c h prob1ems, play an important ro1e in the work of the State Committee of the USSR Counci 1 of Ministers for Science and Technology. Working in these research and consu1tative organs on pub 1 i c 1 i nes are more 28 Science and Technology, under the USSR Council of Ministers, is the dissemination of advanced scientific and technical experience, the organization of an effective system of scientific and technical information. Under present conditions, such a trans fer of "know how" on a DISSEMINATION OF THE RESULTS OF EXPERIENCE �11 horizontal 11 p1ane is no 1ess, if no more, important than that on a vertical plane, from the birth of a new idea to its rea1 ization. The reduction of the 11 sc i ence-product ion 11 culture wi11 be of little use if the 1atest achievements of science and technology remain in the possession of one industry or of one enterprise. The Committee for Science and Technology is supported in this sense by the USSR Exhibition of National Economic Achievements, the All-Union Scientific and Technica1 Information Centre, the A11-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information (VINITI), the State Public Scientific and Technica1 Library. . The Chief Committee of the USSR Ex h i b i t i on of Na t i on a 1 Eco n om i c Achievements, joint1ywith the State Committee for Science and Technology, systematica11y conducts contests for the best solution of major scientific and technical problems, and awards the winners with medals, dip1omas and prizes. The Exhibition, situated in one of Moscow's most picturesque parks, propagandizes advanced experience and new developments in the field of science, techno1ogy and production among representatives of a 11 the repub 1 i cs and territories of the country visiting it. The paviJions of the Exhibition are specialized in the branches of the national economy, science and technology. Lectures, seminars, and f i 1m shows are arranged for the visitors. The State Public Scientific and Techn i ca 1 Library is the main sci enti f i c and technical library of the USSR. It offers its subscribers the leading periodical and non-periodica1 pub1 ications in a11 the spheres of knowledge pub1ished in the USSR and abroad. The Library carries on extensive methods and bibliographica 1 work. Bes i des , i t f u 1 f i 1 1 s orders for the making of microf i 1ms and various copies from the materials in its repositories. The A1 1- Un i on S c i en t i f i c and Technical Information Centre plays the main role in the organization of specialized information in the field of science and techno 1ogy, which inc 1udes the information of a branch and departmental character. S t o r e d i n t h e Ce n t r e a re can di dates I and doctors' theses in the field of science and technology, reports on the completed research jobs or those sti11 in progress. The A1 1 - Un i on I n s t i t u t e o f Scientific and Technical Information complements the activities of the Centre. It co11ects and gives pr i ma ry an a 1y s i s n o t o n 1y t o s pee i a 1 , but a 1 so genera 1 i n formation in the field of science, technology and economics. The VINITI is in a doub1e subordination to the State Committee of Science and Technology and to the Academy of Sciences and meets the needs for information for fundamental and app 1i ed s c i enc e and product i on alike. The institute publishes journals of abstracts on various fields of knowledge and on industrial economics, including the organization and financing of research projects, as we 1 1 as express information and other materials, including the "Scientific and Technical Information" monthly. INFORM!\TION NECESSARY FOR PLANNING The Directives for the 9th FiveYear Plan of the USSR's economic development provide for setting up in the country a single state system of scientific and technical information. In their reports at the 24th CPSU Congress, L. I. Brezhnev, General Secretary of the CC· CPSU, and A. N. Kosygin, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, stress a close interconnect ion between the improvement of the system of scientific and technical 29 �information and the improvement of the p1anning and economic management standards in the present-day conditions. 11 0ur p1anned economy", A.N. Kosygin stressed in his report, 11 makes it poss i b 1 e to create a n a t i on w i de a u tom a t e d sys tern of information co11ection and processing for the planning and management of the nat iona 1 economy on the basis of the state system of computing centres and a sing 1e automatic system of communications in the country". The Directives provide for the improvement of scientific and technica1 information and for the systematic transfer of data on the scientific and technica1 achievements and advanced experience in the field of technology, production processes, the organization of product ion and management to the branches and enterprises concerned. It is necessary to deve 1 op and introduce automatic systems of the p Janning and management of branches, territorial organizations, associations, enterprises; and to ensure, from the very beginning, the organizational, methodological and technical unity of the nationwide automated information system. Automatic process control systems are to be introduced in industria1 enterprises. In the course of 1971 to 1975, we sha11 introduce no less than 1700 such systems in industry, agriculture, post offices, in the trading network and on transport. The State Committee for Science and Technology and the Scientific Information Centres subordinated to it p 1ay the 1ead i ng ro 1e in the development and rea1ization of the sing1e system of scientific and technical information. The introduction of this system wi11 make it possible to make a much fuller use of electronic computers and of the work of the ever growing number of people employed in the sphere of information supp1y to science, techno 1ogy and production. 30 The single system wi 11 cater not on 1y to t he 1o ca 1 and regional computing and information centres, but a1so to the automatic control systems (ACS). In the f i na 1 an a 1 y s i s , th i s system is to become the basis of the scientific management of the nationa1 economy and of the very scientific and technological progress by ensuring the fastest and fu11est possible trans1ation of the last word of fund amen ta 1 s c i e n c e i n t o t he 1anguage of practice. The state system of scientific and technical information set up in the USSR comprises 10 A11Un ion, more than 18 0 branch republican and territorial institutes or cent res and about 9000 departments or bureaus of scientific and technical information at industria1 enterprises and in organizations. They have accumu 1ated more than one bi 11 ion units of reference and information materia1s reflecting the achievements of science, technology and advanced experience. E1 e c t r on i c comp u t e r s , e q u i pm en t f o r ma k i n g mi c rof i lms, e lectrograph i c and other kinds of copies are used in the search for, collection, storing processing and transfer of information. The task now is to keep enhancing the purposefulness of information, to differentiate its spread, depending on the requirements of the given research institution or industrial enterprise. The USSR Council of Ministers has made it binding on all the information services of the co u n t r y to s u b mi t to the p 1ann i ng organs , mi n i st r i es , departments and enterprise managers, every year, materials on the major Soviet and foreign achievements in the field of science and techno 1ogy. This �information is taken into account in working out and considering the plans of national economic development. t~ese p1ans and organizes, joint1y with the USSR Academy of Sciences, economic research in respective fields. The USSR Academy of Sciences is REGISTRATION OF EXPERitJENTS ObJ igatory state registration is be i ng i n t rod u c e d not on 1 y of com~ 1et ed experimenta1 and designing Jobs, but a1so of those in progress and even those t ha t have just been started. Ministries and departments, the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Counc i 1s of Mi n i s t e rs of Un i on Republics have been instructed to exercise control over the continuous and uninterrupted inf 1 ux of this information. The automatic subsystems of the co11ection, processing, storage and transfer of scientific and t e c h n i ca 1 i n f o rm a t i on a r e coup1ed with the automated systems of production management. Such a combined system is already functioning in the instrument-making industry, for instance. The USSR State Planning Committee (GOSPLAN of the USSR) p1ays the 1eading role in the system of national economic management. Its main job is to work out p1ans ensuring the proportional deve1opment of the Soviet nat i ona 1 economy, the continuous growth and increasing efficiency of pub1 ic production. The USSR State Planning Committee is paying an ever closer attention to the planning of the use in the nationa1 economy of the achievements of science and technology, to the output of technica11y perfect machinery, to the mastering of modern production processes, comprehensive mechanization and automation of production, to the use of economic and ma themat i ca 1 methods, computers and automatic planning systems, as we11 as the systems of automatic management and information processing. The USSR State Planning Committee exercises contro1 over the fulfi 11ment of the main organ for the management of fundamenta 1 research in the sphere of natural and socia1 sciences in the first place. It determines the basic research trends and coordinates the efforts exerted in this sphere by its institutes (the Institutes of the Academies of Sciences of the Union Republics and branch academies, the Academy of Medi ca 1 Sciences, the Academy of Pedagogica1 Sciences, the Academy of Construction and Architecture, the A11-Unioh V. I. Lenin Agricultural Academy) and a1so by higher educational establishments and the biggest research institutes of various departments. The chief tasks of the USSR Academy of Sciences are as follows: to develop research a1ong the main trends of natural and social sciences, to carry out research work in the interest of scientific and technological progress in the field of electrification, comprehensive mechanization and automation of production, the use of new power sources and new methods of energy conversion; the bringing out of the entirely new possibilities of t e c h no 1o g i ca 1 p r o g r e s s , the drawing up of recommendations for their use in the national economy; the study and genera 1 i za ti on of the achievements of world science and the promotion of their ful1est possible use in practice. D~OCRATIC PRINCIPLES The activities of the USSR Academy of Sciences a re based on democratic principles. Its highest organ is the general meeting of the Academy, convened at ]east once a year, with the full members, 31 �honorary members and corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences taking part. The Presidium is engaged in organizational work and the day - to - day management of the Academy's subdivisions. The Presidium is comprised of the President, Vice ... President, the Chief Learned Secretary of the Presidium, academicians- secretaries of the divisions and other members; the number of which is set by the Genera 1 Meeting of the Academy. The Presidium convenes General Meetings, endorses the plans of work in the fie1d of na t i ona 1 a n d s o c i a 1 s c i en c e s , joint1y with the State Committee for Science and Technology and the USSR State Planning Committee, sets up learned councils for dealing with the key complex problems, sets the research trends and specializations of institutes, takes measures for ensuring the use of research findings in the nationa1 economy. The Presidentof the USSR Academy of Sciences supervises the activities of the Union Republics through its Coordination Counci1. THE ACADEM'f The USSR Academy of Sciences has 16 departments united into 4 sections (3 natural science sections and 1 social science section). Each department of the Academy i s the scientific and organizing centre of one or sever a 1 sciences and carries out scientific guidance of the institutes of the respective specialization. The highest organ of the department is its genera 1 meeting. The department bureau is headed by an academician-secretary. The branches of the USSR Academy of Sciences and research centres in Autonomous Repub 1 i cs, Territories and Regions have the administrative organs of their own (Pres id i urns) and are coo rd i - 32 nated by the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The Siberian branch of the Academy of Sciences is subordinated not only to the Presidium of the Academy, but also to the Counci 1 of Ministers of the Russian Federation and shares the scientific guidance of its institutes with the respective departments of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Besides the national level, we can a 1so speak of the branch 1eve 1 of science management - the level of ministries and departments. At this leve 1, the requisite rates of industria1 development and labour productivity growth are ensured, a single technical po1icy is carried on, the latest advances of science, technology and advanced experience are introduced, the techn i ca 1 and economic performance of production is enhanced and a scientific organization of Jabour, product ion and management, ensuring the maximum use of the knowledge and experience of the employed is introduced. The ministries and departments appraise the techn ica 1 and economic 1eve1 of production achieved, map out ways of the most effective use of the achievements of science and techno1ogy, exercise control over the work of research and designing organizations for their branch In most cases, these organizations are subordinated to branch central boards,except the organizations dea1ing with the problems confronting the whole Ministry; such organizations are subordinated to technical boards. In the Ministry of the Gas Industry of the USSR, for instance, the techn i ca 1 board manages a 11 the research and designing organizations of the branch. In its work of guiding the research and development work, the administration of ministries and departments has the coopera- �tion of technical councils which employ the most prominent specialists in the given sphere as experts. The ministries and de pa rt men t s organise, in close contact with the State Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers for Science and Technology, the scientific and technical propaganda and information service, which is usua11y combined with the service of technical and economic ana 1ys is and the patent and 1i cence service, and maintain contacts with foreign countries. The Soviet science management system contributed to the rational arrangement of the network of research institutions and centres in the country, to the organization of fundamental and applied research and development work. A controlled system of research activities - the so-ca11ed mode1 of development, unparal1e1ed in the developed capita) ist countries -was set up in the country. The system is of great interest to the deve1oping nations. As di st i net from the majority of Western countries, fundamental research in the Soviet Union is concentrated mainly in the institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Academies of Sciences of the Union Repub1ics and of the branch academies; h i g her educ at ion a 1 establishments play a more modest ro1e than in the USA, Western Europe, Canada or Japan. The Soviet Union is by right ca11ed abroad a country with the 11 academic syste~• of research organization. This is directly connected with the role played by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in the first p1ace, in the guidance of research. The tota1 number of research es tab 1 i shments in the USSR grew from 2359 in 1940 to 4985 in 1970, that is, more than doubled in the past 30 years. An espec i a 11 y striking numerical growth was registered by research institutes, their branches and divisions - a form of research organ i z at ion which Russia's advanced scientists had urged way back before the October Revolution. As of late 1970, the USSR Academy of Sciences had 234 research institutions which employed 35. 1 thousand researchers, including 693 academicians, ful 1 members and corresponding members. Altogether, the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Academies of Sciences of Uni on Repub 1 i cs and bra n ch a cad em i es comp r i s es 862 research establishments, employing 85.9 thousand research associates. HIGHER EIXJCATION Higher educat iona 1 es tab 1 i shments -universities in the first placeare closely connected with the system of academic research institutions. It is noteworthy, that in the USSR, as distinct, for instance, from the USA, institutions of higher learning offer four to six - year courses of training to graduates of ten-grade secondary schools. The total number of higher educational establishments in the country was 811 in the 1971/72 academic year. The emphasis was ]aid on the deliberate regulation of the number of higher educational establishments while raising their quality standards through the modernization of study programmes, improving the qualifications of professors and instructors, the provision of more experimental and training faci1 ities to the higher school, the drawing of even more instructors, post graduates and students into research work. At present, about one-third of all Soviet research workers are concentrated in the higher schoo 1. In a number of 1 ead i ng higher educational establishments, junior students are drawn into an active participation in research 33 �and designing work. Rich experience has been accumu1ated in this fie1d by the Novosibirsk State University, the Moscow Physica1-Technica1 Institute, Moscow's Bauman Higher Technical School, and the Moscow and Leningrad Universities. The activities of students• scientific societies have gained in scope; their membership at the leading higher educat i ona 1 establishments accounts for about a third of the total student body. The growing standards of these societies' work can be judged at 1east by the fact that more student papers (especia11y those by senior students) are of considerable scientific and practical importance. FUTURE SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS The future gifted scientists and engineers show their abilities whi1e st i 11 at s c hoo 1 . I t i s on 1y na tu r a 1 that serious attention is paid to the timely revelation and cultivation of these abilities. Various faculties of Moscow's Lomonosov University arrange yearly contests in which senior school pupils take part. Pupils are invited to the University's scientific circles, the members of which are given priority in enrollment. The circle set up by the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics of the Moscow University, for instance, has been functioning successfully for many years now. Prominent scientists, academicians, corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences and professors devote much of their time and energy to the training of gifted young people. Many leading scientists of the Siberian branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences take an active part in conducting the so-ca 11 ed summer schools in the Academic Town every year, to which the winners of scientific cont es ts by correspondence are invited. The most gifted of them are accepted by the boarding school of the Novosibirsk State University. 34 Together with higher educational establishments, academic research institutions make up less than onethird of the total number of the country•s research bodies, but it is they that create the 11 sc i ent if ic backlog 11 which ensures the development of science, technology and production. New ideas are made a reality by a vast network of branch and other app 1 i ed research institutes and designing bureaus, plant laboratories and scientific - industrial associations. The 24th CPSU Congress paid most serious attention to the problem of speeding up the introduction of the latest achievements of science and techno1ogy into production. A programme of economic, 1ega1 and organ i zat iona 1 measures for the solution of this problem was worked out. The basic organizational form, making it possible to carry out the whole complex of the measures planned i s the s c i e n c e - i n d u s t r i a 1 association headed by the director of a research institute. It is precisely the institute, and not the p1ant, that plays the decisive ro1e in determining the technical policy and strategy of the scienceindustrial association. SC IENCE - INDUSTRIAL AND PROOOCTION ASSOCIATIONS MNNffAGES OF The associations showed their advantages in the early years of their existence. In the science- i ndus t ri a 1 associations of Leningrad, for instance, the duration of the 11 science product ion 11 eye 1e was reduced to one-third or even to one-fourth as compared with the enterprises which have not joined the associations. labour productivity grew remarkably and personnel fluctuation was reduced. Science-industrial and production associations have a great future ahead of them in the epoch of modern scientific and technical revo1ution. The most important thing is that these associations open up �broad prospects of the effective use of modern automatic control systems. The experience of Soviet sciencei ndus tr i a 1 and product ion associations confirms that such systems produce good results given a sufficiently efficient and substantiated organizat i ona 1 s t r u ct u re , we 1 1 - adj us t e d communication channels and an unhindered influx of information. The system of organs of the state management of science in the USSR has worked out and implemented, wlth the support of the broad scientific and technical public and all the working people, a smoothly operating system of the organization and management of research work in the country. This system is an organic part of a broader system of national economic planning and constitutes its ever more important e 1ement. Fol lowing the principle accepted in the USSR, the planning of the national economic development should proceed from the out 1 i ne of future scientific and technological progress. Therefore, branch and comprehensive forecasts of sclentif ic and technological progress and long-range plans based on them are drawn up. These plans serve as a foundation of the State Five-Year Plan of research and of the utilization of technical and scientific achievements in the national economy and also of coordination plans for solving basic scientific and technological problems which are presented in more detail in the appropriate branches and organizations. These plans, in turn. serve as a basis for the yearly plan n in g of s c i en t i f i c and techno 1oq i ca I progress alt along the line - from the country as a whole down t o an i n d i v i d u a 1 re s ea r c h institute, a designing bureau or an industrial enterprise. I Mr. Bobrov was born in 1925 near Moscow. He graduated from Secondary School in 1943 and joined the Air Force where he served in the capacity of fighter-bomber pilot unti.1 1948. In that year, he entered the Moscow Civil Aviation Institute and graduated from i t a dip.lama in Electric and Electronics Equipment in 1954. Between 1954 and 1961 he served in various capacities with the Electric Industry, mainly in quality controJ departments. In 1961 he joined the Foreign Trade Ministry and in 1962 was posted to Great Britain as Chief Inspector responsible for Soviet orders with British electric and electronics firms. In 1966 he was called back to Moscow and for a short period served in the Scientific and Research Institute, Ministry of Civil Aviation as Assistant Director of the Technical Information Branch. In 1967 he joined the State Committee for Science and Technology of the USSR, and in November 1 9 6 8 was posted to Canada in the capacity of Counsellor of the Embassy (Science and Technology). He is married with two children, 16 and 20 (son and daughter). His hobbies include tennis, fishing, skiing and camping. Ill EIXJCATIOO IN THE THIRD WORLD - THE PEARSON COLLEGE OF THE PAC I FIC IS THE TH I RD IN A NETWORK OF UN I T ED WORLD COLLEGES CREATED TO PROMOTE INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING THROUGH EDUCATION AND TO PROVIDE A PATTERN OF EDUCATION TAILORED TO THE NEEDS OF THE TIMES. THE PIONEERING UNITED WORLD COLLEGE OF THE ATLANTIC WAS ESTABLISHED IN WALES IN 1962. A SECOND COLLEGE,. THE LJWC OF SOUTHEAST ASIA,. OPENED IN SINGAPORE LAST YEAR. THE ULTIMATE PLAN IS TO HAVE SIM I LAR COLLEGES IN EVERY MAJOR REGION OF THE WORLD. THE GRADUATES ATTAIN AN INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE,. RECOGNIZED BY ALL CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES. 35 �A GEOLOGIC TRAVERSE ACR SS AFRICA By John S. Mothersi11 11-IE Lir+IOLOGY OF LAKE SUPERIOR Lakehead University is in the fortunate position of being on the doorstep of one of the 1argest natura 1 1abs i n the wo r 1 d - La k e Sup e r i or. The opportunities for scientific research on Lake Superior are 1 imitless and since becoming a facu1ty member of the Geo logy Department at Lakehead University in 1966 J have carried out 1 i mno 1og i ca 1 stud i es of Lake Superior in conjunction with the Canada Centre for ln1and Waters. These studies included physica1 and geochem i ca 1 research of the lake bottom sediments, interaction processes of the sediment-water interface and the chemistry of the Jake waters. The dee is ion to spend my sabba ti ca 1 leave inAfrica was not difficu1t to arrive at, for a number of reasons, not the 1east of them being the opportunity to do comparative research on lakes Victoria and Chad. Most of the time, from graduating from Queen•s University to taking up a position on the facu 1ty of Lakehead University, I had spent with an international oi 1 company carrying out o i 1 exp 1o r a t i on i n the Mid d 1e East , A f r i ca , Sou t h A f r i ca a n d Europe. Having lived in West Africa for several years I was aware of the extreme housing shortage in most of the African countries. As I was being accompanied by my family, this presented a problem to which, fortunately there was a solution. As most universities in Africa provide housing for their facu 1ty and senior staff, I wrote to Makerere University, Uganda, and the Universityof N i g e r i a , N i g e r i a i n d i ca t i ng my interest in carrying out 1 imnologica1 studies on Lakes Victoria and Chad, respective1y. The Vice-Chance11ors of both un i ve rs i t i es r e p 1 i e d that they would be pleased to accept my proposal and designated me as 36 a Visiting Reader (equivalent to an Associate Professor in Canada) which resolved the housing problem and also expedited the process of obtaining our visas. In most independent African countries, an ordinary visitor's visa a 1 lows the holder to remain in the country for a 1 imited period oft ime only, usually six weeks or less, which was of 1 ittle use to me. To obtain an ordinary visa can take many months while an extended vis itor 1 s visa and work permit presents much greater problems. Fortunate1y,with the he1p of the universities in both countries, this red-tape was made much ea s i er to copewith and after rece1v1ng our visas we 1eft Canada for Uganda in June 1972. RESEARCH AND PRESIDENT AMIN The problems encountered in carrying out independent research in any underdeveloped country are quite staggering, just a few wi11 be mentioned in this paper. The lack oft rained manpower was the first problem encountered as, being in short s up p 1 y , a 11 of the t r a i n e d men av a i 1a b 1 e a re fu 11 y emp 1oyed. This matter was not eased at a11 by the expulsion from Uganda, by President Amin of all Asians, of whom most of the ski 1 led trades were composed. All eight launches of the Department of Fisheries and the only research vessel of the East African Fresh Water Fisheries Research Organization were under repair. Of course the mechanics of both organizations were Asian and they had been ordered to 1eave the country so why should they work? Eventually a launchwas provided by the Ministry of Works and by early September, after one complete engine change in the launch (the details of which wi 11 not be entered into here) a 1 i mno 1og i ca 1 s u r v e y was c a r r i e d out on the northwestern area of Lake Victoria. The survey was terminated �broad prospects of the effective use modern automatic control systems. The experience of Soviet scienceindustria1 and production associations confirms that such systems produce good results g l ven a sufficiently efficient and substantiated organizational structure, well-adjusted communication channels and an unhindered influx of information. of S~Y The system of organs of the state management of science in the USSR has worked out and implemented, with the support of the broad scientific and technicai public and all the working people, a smoothly operating system of the organization and management of research work in the country. This sys tern is an organic pa rt of a broader system of national economic p1anning and constitutes its ever more impor- tant element. Fol lowing the principle accepted in the USSR, the p 1ann i ng of the nationa1 economic development should proceed from the out 1 i ne of future scientific and technological progress. Therefore, branch and comprehensive forecasts of sc lent if i c and technological progress and long-range plans based on them are drawn up. These plans serve as a foundation of the State Five-Year Plan of research and of the utilization of technical and scientific achievements In the national economy and also of coordination plans for solving basic scientific and technological problems which are presented in more deta i 1 in the appropriate branches and organizations. These plans, in turn. serve as a basis for the yearly plan n i n g of s c i en t i f l c and techno l oq i cal progress a1J along the line - from the country as a whole down to an i n d i v i du a 1 res ea r ch institute, a designing bureau or an Industrial enterprise. I Mr. Bobrov was born in 1925 near Moscow. He graduated from Secondary School in 1943 and joined the Air Force where he served in the capacity of fighter-bomber pilot unt_il 1948. In that year, he entered the Moscow Civil Aviation Institute and graduated from it a diploma in Electric and Electronics Equipment in 1954. Between 1954 and 1.961 he served in various capacities with the Electric Industry, mainly in quality control departments. In 1961 he joined the Foreign Trade Ministry and in 1962 was posted to Great Brita.in as Chief Inspector responsible for Soviet orders with British electric and electronics firms. In 1966 he was called back to Moscow and for a short period served in the Scientific and Research Institute, Ministry of Civil Aviation as Assistant Director of the Technical Information Branch. In 1967 he joined the State Committee for Science and Technology of the USSR, and in November 1968 was posted to Canada in the capacity of Counsellor of the Embassy (Science and Technology). He is married with two children, 16 and 20 (son and daughter). His hobbies include tennis, fishing, skiing and camping. I EIXJC'ATI~ IN TIE TIHRD WORLD - THE PEARSON COLLEGE OF THE PAC I FIC IS THE TH I RD IN A NETWORK OF UN I T ED WORLD COLLEGES CREATED TO PROMOTE INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING THROUGH EDUCATION A~D TO PROVIDE A PATTERN OF EDUCATION TAILORED TO THE NEEDS OF THE T I MES . THE P I ONE ER I NG UNITED WORLD COLLEGE OF THE ATLANTIC WAS ESTABLISHED IN WALES IN 1962. A SECOND COLLEGE., THE IJWC OF SOUTHEAST ASIA., OPENED IN SI NGA PORE LAST YEAR. THE ULTIMATE PLAN IS TO HAVE SIMILAR COLLEGES IN EVERY MAJOR REG I ON OF THE WORLD. THE GRADUATES ATTAIN AN INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE., RECOGNIZED BY ALL CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES. 35 �when ten armed soldiers took over the launch on beha1f of President Amin who wanted to go fishing! We discovered later that the authorities suspected that the vessel might be used to transport Asians to and from Uganda and Kenya, and was not to leave the dock at Ji nj a. We 1eft for Nigeria in mid-September five days before an attempted coup took p1ace and things became rather unpleasant for expatriates living in Uganda. Apart from the 1imno1ogica1 studies, our stay in East Africa was most interesting from a general geological point of view. We took every advantageofour stay to visit some visit some of the places which to us were almost legendary. In particular, I examined parts of the unique East African Rift system which consists of a series of downdropped blocks (grabens) and uplifted blocks (hors ts) of the earth's crust extending from Tanzania to Turkey. In addition, a visit to01duvai Gorge where Professor Leaky discovered the bones of Zinganthropus and Homo erectus leaky i which many scientists be 1 i eve to be d i rec t an c es to rs of man proved to be most interesting. Work was sti 11 being carried out at 'the dig' under the direction of Professor Leaky 1 s widow. On the way to 01 duva i we visited Ngorongoro crater, advertised, and possib1y correct1y so, as the 1argest known crater of an extinct vo1cano. THE SOURCE OF THE NILE One of the great geographic challenges of the last century was to discover the source of the Nile. Eventually the riddle was so1ved by Speke who in 1858 postulated correct 1y that Lake V i ctori a was the source. We fo 11 owed the Victoria Ni 1e from the source, Lake Victoria at Jinja, to Lake Kyoga and along the A1bert Ni1e to Lake Albert and i ts 1 i n k - u p w i t h t h e Wh i t e- N i 1e , visiting on our journey Murchison Fa11s and its game park. The time passed so qui ck 1 y that, when our time came in September to leave for Nigeria, therewas so much we wished st i 11 to do! In Nigeria, the Federa1 Fisheries Department provided us with a bunga1 ow a t t h e i r r e s ea r c h s t a t i on at Ma 1 umfator i on the shores of lake Chad, 175 mi 1es into the Southern Sahara! The transportation of 1,000 pounds of equipment from the University at Nsukka in the East Cent ra 1 State over 850 mi 1es of very inferior roads (175miles of which were across a trackless scrub desert) proved to be somewhat of an obstacle. Three different Land Rovers were required to complete the journey. The first, a brand new 1972 vehicle belonging to the university, came to an unt ime1y end at Jos, after completing approximately 350 grue11 ing mi Jes, with a broken ax 1e. Rep 1acement parts not being ava i 1ab 1e we were 1ucky to obtain the use of a Land Rover from the Ministry of Natural Resources, which could take us only as far as Maiduguri, 175 miles from our destination. We were met at Maiduguri by p e r s on n e 1 f r om t he res ea r ch station who transferred our equipment, yet again, to the fina1 vehicle which conveyed us across the desert to Ma1amfatori. SEVERE DROUGHT 11-IREATENS A survey of the open water area of Lake Chad was carried out from the research vesse 1, E 1 Kanemi, during January and February. The studies of the lake, which has a maximum depth of merely 14 feet although it covers an area of 5,000 square mi 1es, has uncovered some interesting data at a time when severe drought t h re a t en s the very ex i s t en c e o f thousands of peop 1e in Cent ra 1 Africa. The f 1 u v i a 1 input to the 1 a k e is mainly from the Chari River which flows into the Southern Basin. There is no outlet from the lake, and the 37 �fluvial addition is kept in rough balance by the high rate of evaporation in the northern basin which fringes the Sahara. The combination of fresh water influx in the south and evaporation in the north has resu I ted in a sa 1 in i ty gradient towards the north. Situated as it is in a depression a substantial increase in rainfall could increase the volume of water inthe lake, but unless this happens in the next few years, the fish population will be badly depleted in an area already faced with the threat of wholesale starvation. BEFORE YOU GO TO AFRICA I f you a re p I a n n i n g a tr i p to Africa in the near future you would do we 11 to heed the fol lowing advice:- ♦ AFRICA ATLANTIC 0 Miles 200 [1] Check thoroughly and well ahead of time on visa and vaccination requirements. Most African countries have Embassies or High Commissions in Ottawa and this information can be easily obtained. ♦ [2] Dress conservatively as Africans in most Independent African countries tend to be conservative about dress. For example, the wearing of shorts or miniskirts by g i r 1 s in African countries could resu 1 t in a fine or imprisonment. Lake [3] Don't try smugg 1 i ng as you could end up in an African jai 1 which is a part of the African scene you wou Id probab 1y wish to avoid visiting. I Dr. Mothersill has been a faculty member at La.kehead University since 1966. Born in Ottawa, his work has taken him to Turkey, Nigeria and Columbia amongst other places. As well as analyzing the results of his studies of Lake Superior and lakes in Africa, he is currently Supervisor of the Federal Government Seismic Station at La.kehead University. I 38 Olduvai GorQe •/ Mt. Kilimanjaro ..... 0 Miles 100 NoorOOQoro Crater -o �Dr. Mothersill at home and away Mrs. Mothersill and infant at Mount Elgin on the border of Uganda and Kenya. "in the best of spirits and well fed . . . " Overlooking the Victoria Nile. "a child . . . whose father has more than a passing interest in geology . . . " �Olduvai Gorge where Professor Leaky made his discovery. At the foot of the section at Olduvai Gorge Above - Murchison Falls "Our first encounter with the spectacle of the African panorama . . . " A Kanuri family at the communal water tap near Lake Chad "the people [ were j very hospitable and extremely friendly . �TRAVELS 1TH By Valerie Mothersi Y SON 11 When my husband informed me that he had been granted a sabbatical leave and that we were to spend that precious year in Africa, carrying out r e s ea r c h s t u d i e s on La k e s Victoria and Chad, the thought of any difficulties being encountered in taking our son, then aged eight months, on an extensive tour of East and West Africa did not occur to me; after a11, we had taken him to Toronto when he was mere 1y three months old! We left Canada in June, 1972 and after a brief stopover in England arrived in Uganda twelve days later. Living as we were in the fairly sophisticated capita 1 of Kampala, the routine of daily life was not so very different from that encountered in Thunder Bay. It was our expeditions beyond the urban areas which put to the test our abi 1 i ty to adapt and improvise. For example, can you imag•ine travelling many miles in Canada without encountering a road-side snack bar urging you to "EAT", let alone an A&W? First lesson - never contemplate even the shortest car trip without taking along a couple of thermos flasks of boiled water, a packet of dried milk, halfa-dozen jars of baby food and, if you are lucky enough to have any room 1eft, some sustenance for Mum and Dad. The second lesson, that of the necessity of having an inexhaust i b 1e supply of disposable diapers, was of 1 ittle use to us as this commodity is not regarded as an abso 1 ute necessity of l i f e by the Ugandan peop 1e and hence is unavailable. Dirty cloth diapers combined with lack of water do' test one 1 s ingenuity. VENTURING INTO THE COUNTRYSIDE Our first encounter with the spectacle of the African panorama was on a visit to Murchison Falls National Park where crocodiles in the Nile are as common as lamprey in Superior: elephant, giraffe, water buffalo, kob 1 and many other an ima 1s roam free 1y, unhampered by man's urge to kill. The political situation being as it was, my husband's work on Lake Victoria was delayed, giving us a few days to fly to Kenya to do the safari thing. After an exceptionally sumptuous over-night stay in the New Stanley Hotel in Nairobi, we felt we 11 fortified for our drive to Tanzania and the wonders of Kilimanjaro Serengeti and Olduvai Gorge. Lesson number three - if possible always take along a baby when going on safari. At border crossings what is in effect a mere formality of stamping a passport often can be turned into a marathon wait for the I r ight man I to come to perform the r i tua 1 . An accompanying chi 1d a c q u i res the uncanny ab i 1 i ty to cut red tape as if he transformed to a pair of enchanted scissors, his presence has the effect of making an insignificant border guard into a great stamp-wielding man (perhaps because of those dirty diapers in the car?). The equa 1 measure of p 1ea sure and curiosity with which a child treats a 1 1 new experiences is either an object lesson in how to find joy, excitement or merely a s t i mu 1 us for one I s cu r i o s i t y in a 1 1 th i n gs , be they ug 1y or beautiful, mundane or ethereal, precious or i.ne~pensive. The beautiful Masai people clothed in bright flowing robes and adorned so e 1egan t 1y with handmade, beaded jewellery, earrings which stretch their ear lobes out of all proportion, aroused great interest (but then so does Mum in a shocking pink housedress and ceramic meda 11 ion) . To an adu 1t the vision of Kilimanjaro, sur~ounded as it is by t~e mystique of Hemingway, 41 �is awe-inspiring, but to a nine months old bor who has a 1 ready seen Mount McKay, what else is there? Serengeti, with its thousandsofsquare miles of arid savanna land and great herds of zebra and ostrich, proved to be of not much more competition to the teddy bear than were the elephants of Murchison. Even being the largest extinct volcanic crater in the world did not save Ngo rogo ro from being re 1ega t ed to the posit ion of 11 just another pretty valley with nice an ima 1s - but no teddy bears! 11 3 But the genetic heritage of a child (whose Mother is not averse to joining in an archaeo1ogica1 dig and whose Father has more than a passing interest in geology) cannot fail to make that chi1d appreciate Olduvai Gorge, the home of Aust ra 1op i thecus and the Mecca of all who are concerned with pre-history. Where else can one be photographed with the femur of an elephant circa one million years old, in its natural habitat? A LONG AND DIFFICULT JOURNEY To detail the eighteen hour drive from A r u s ha , Ta n z a n i a to Th i k a , Kenya would require an article in itself, but the value· of adhering to rule one was made abundantly clear to us during that time. Careful planning ensured our arrival in Thika in time for supper, contingent on our leaving Arusha by 8 a.m. which we did. However, our careful planning, although it did take into account visiting Ngorogoro Crater and O 1duva i Gorge and al lowed for a reasonably 1eisure1y drive through Serengeti Nat iona1 Park, did not al low for the deplorable driving conditions in a constant fog of swi r1 ing dust and roads which wou1d make a tank driver shudder in horror: a 1 f 1at' dea 1t us a f i na 1 blow on re-entering Kenya. Our pioneering spirit was further severely tested by the 1ack of food! In the orig i na 1, ca refu 11 y made i t i n er a r y, arr i v a 1 a t safar i 1od ges co i n c i d e d 42 with mea 1 times: the actua 1 time of arrival in Kenya coincided with the area of no - man ' s 1a n d be tween meals. Witness the wisdom of tule number one - whilst the two adults of our 1 it t 1e party we re without sustenance, save a packet of cookies and two melted chocolate bars, for eighteen hours, the youngest member thrived on milk, pureed sp I nach, minced chicken and the inevitable a p r i co t p u d d i n g . He a r r i v e d i n Th i k a a t 2 a. m. i n t he be s t of spirits and we 11 - fed, the envy of his Mum and Dad. TI£ CHILD AS DIPLc»\AT The ensuing months saw us in Nigeria, Liberia and on the borders of Niger, Nigeria and Chad at lake Chad. It was at Chad that ru 1e three again exhibited its worth. Situated as we were, at a scientific research station 140 miles into the Southern Sahara, access i b 1e on1y by fourwheel drive vehicles and camel, the soc i a 1 1 i f e , a 1 t ho u g h e n v i a b 1y peaceful, at times did become rather wanting in stimulation and here the child as diplomat came into his own. The people from the neighbouring Kanuri vi 1 lage, al though very hospitable and extremely friendly, were rather shy of strangers, especially a white, fema1e stranger who wore trousers! But a chi 1d, 1 i ke a dog, has the uncanny ab i 1 i ty of breaking down al 1 barriers, even that of uncommon language, to make communication not on 1y enj oya b 1 e but uncomplicated. By this time he had learned to walk and cou 1 d be seen toddling over to the communal water tap for his dai1y ration of ground nuts from the women of the vi 11 age. As I am writing this, my mind is flooded with incidents, most of them enjoyable to recall, which we experienced with the '1 itt1e man' as we began ca11 ing him ancl al 1 of them reinforce my conviction that where- �ever two adu1tsgo together,a child can go and probably suffer a Jot less from the accompanying problems of adj,1;.1stment; in fact, if you don't have one yourself, borrow one for jou,neys in foreign 1ands, they are invaluable. 1 A Kobis a member of the antelope :family. 2 A local wen of 'which Thunder Bay is inordinately proud. 3 The Mot'hersills should go· to Queensland on their next Sabbatical ~ there are teddy bears • (Koalas) all over the place. □ taken root in the reorganization of the e 1ementa ry and secondary sch.co 1s and community colleges.' • As we 11 as the headqu 9 rters at Quebec ·city, the Un Ivers i ty of Quebec has campuses located at Chicoutimi, Moritrea1, Rimouski and Trois.-Rlvieres and smal Jer study centre.s at ~01;.1yn and Hu ll . I n add i t ion , •L ' Eco 1 e nationale d'administration publJque, Plnstitut national de .1 9 recherche scientifique ancll I lnstitut de microbiologie et d'hygiene are administrat iVe 1y a pa r t o f t he u n i v e rs it y. Total enrolment 1n 1973-74 is 30,POO s·tudents. The networks A univer'sity w.ith an 800 mi.le campus? The educa tionai needs of Quebec.make i t necessary, and commu'ni~c1t.ion,s technology .makes i t practical.· • • C :•• :0. •, Sea rce 1 y f i,ve yea rs ago·, the University of Quebec did not exist. In the short period since, however, i t has become one of the p icineers in the concept of mult i..;.campus universities, and has broken new ground in applying state-of-the art technology to the problems bf providing effective communications. To maintain, a constant 1 ink among its seven campuses, stretching across an 800mi1e territory in Quebec, the university has used engineering and ingenuity to develop a uril~ue communications system, not only to provide more effective admiri istration, but for teaching and research as we 11 . The University of Quebec, founded in 1968 by an act of the National Assembly, is the province's seventh institute of higher learning, its fourth French language university and the first to go public. Its creation was the culmination of a ten year reform of Quebec's educational system which had already From the outset, i t was seen that such a wide dispersion bf faf i l iti es would present administrative di ff iculties. More ser io'us, •. i f ]ess tang'ible, probl'ems of providing for a free flow of idea$ clrid information among students. ancf professors. - the kinds, of exchange so vi ta 1. to the ed.ucat iona 1 prbcess - are al.so .more acute when significant di stances separate the phys ica t e leme.n ts of a uriiversity. •• • ... One of. the first projects in 'proVi ding e f f'ec ti \le cornmu i, i cations throughout the un'iversi\Y was to 1aunch a data< communications n~twork to aid in teaching, research and management. The system, based 011 a Control D~(a'tYBER'.;. 73 compyier, .at Qu~bec, prtivides both batch a'nd, realtime proces~ i ng fa c i 1 i, t. i es . Ea·c h campus has ,:fc c '7 ~ s o accor~j,ng to its demands. 'The central. computer serves at.t of the other univ~rsity i{1 emen ts , i n c 1 u d i n g t he s ma 1 i e r study cent res. Because computing demands are hi'gher at three focat ions the ce11tral computing facility.has been beefed up by separate compu.ters installed at the Montreal, Troi sRivieres and Chicoutimi' campuses. f iJ - Louis Brunel, Vice~President, Communications, University o:f Quebec.,□ 43 �AU SEUIL D'UNE NOUVELLE TECHN LOGIE: LA SUPRAC NDUCTIVITE Par Gaston Fischer dema in, que nous a 11 ons essayer d I en presenter les traits principaux. L I a tt r i but I on d u p r i x Nobe 1 d e physique pour 1972 est remarquable a deux tit res. Tout d 'abord, ce pr ix recompense non pas une invention, ma is 1a decouverte de 1 'orig i ne d I un phenomene observe depuis longtemps, mais dont on ignorait jusqu'a1ors entierement la cause. Ensuite - fait sans precedent - il s • ag i t de 1' attribution d 1 un deuxieme prix Nobe1 a une meme personne, pour des travaux dans un meme doma i ne. En e f f e t ' 1 I u n d e s t r O i s 1au r eats americains,* John Bardeen, avait deja recu 1e pr ix Nobe 1 en compagn i e de Wi 11 iam Shockley et W.H. Brattain, pour avoir invente le transistor. Ma i s a 1ors q u e 1e p ri x No b e 1 de 1956 recompensait une invention en physique des semiconducteurs, celui de 1972 a ete attribue pour JI e1a bO r a t i O n d I u n e t heo r i e mi C ros cop i que de 1a supraconduc ti vi te. II L'adj ect if "mi croscop i que sign if i e qu'il s'agit d'une theorie expl iquant 1'origine du phenomene de la supraconduct iv i te en termes de processus a 1 'eche11e atomique,, par opposition a une t heo r i e qui ne fer a i t q u e de C r i r e 1 e p hen Omen e t e 1 q u I on 1 1 observe a 1 1 eche 11 e huma i ne OU "macroscop i que 11 • la nouve 11 e theorie de 1a supraconductivite estdesignee par 1es in i ti a 1es BCS, de ses t ro is auteurs; e11e a comp1etee quelques mois seu1ement apres que Bardeen eut recu son premier prix Nobe 1 . A cet te epoque, Bardeen ava it 48 ans et - de par son activite de professeur - dirigeait 1es travaux d 1 un groupe de jeunes chercheurs, parm i 1esque 1s Cooper, qui eta it au benefice d'une bourse de perfect ionnement pos tdoc to ra 1 e, et Schrieffer, un etudiant preparant sa these de doctorat. Le phenomene de 1a supraconduct iv ite est si spectaculaire, et i1 est appe 1e a jouer un role te11 ement important dans les technologies de ete 44 L.ORSQUE LA RESISTANCE ELECTRIQUE DISPAAAIT La supra CO n du Ct i V i t e est 1 a propr i ete qu 1ont certa ins metaux' a des temperatures voisines du zero abso1 u, de presenter une conduct iv i te i ect r i que inf iniment e1evee (ou une resist iv i te nul 1e). La loi d 1 Ohm I = U/R, ou I= courant et U = tension, nous montre qu 1 un courant I non nu1 peut parcourir un supraconducteur, bien que 1a tension U soit zero (mathemat iquement: I= 0/0 # 0). Ai ns i, un anneau supraconducteu r (p. ex. un anneau de p 1omb a une temperature de 4°K, c'est-a-dire 4 deg res centigrades audessus du zero abso1u qui est a -273, 16°C) pourra etre parcouru par un courantI ver i tab 1ement permanent. Ce courant permanent est un courant d'electrons, tout comme 1e sont les courants 1ectr i ques da n s 1es conducteurs traditionne1s. Puisque nous savons que les electrons sont des particules atomi ques bien ree 11 es qui ont une masse m (done une inertie) et une charge,e, ce courant I dans 1 1 anneau represente une sorte de mouvement perpetuel, au meme titre q u e 1 a r on de i n c es s ante des e1ectrons autour du noyau d I un atome. la resistance electr i que des metaux provient des forces de f re i nage auxquel les sont soumis les electrons de conduct ion 1orsqu' i 1s entrent en collision, soit avec les atomes ou ions du reseau cristal 1 in, soit avec des imperfections de ce reseau, te 1s que les a tomes d' impuretesou des def auts er i sta 11 ins. Un reseau sans imperfections freine Jes electrons par son agitation thermique.Au zero absolu, un reseau crista11in par fa i t opposer a it une resistance nu11e au courant e1ectrique. Mais on sait que le zero abso1u ne peut etre atteint. e e �a Revenons 1a supraconductivite. Comment comp rend re que pour des metaux qui ne sont ni parfaits, ni au zero abs o 1 u, 1es forces de freinage semblent dispara7tre lorsque 1a temperature descend audessous de Tc? I 1 se t rouve que dans 1es supraconducteurs un phenomene tout nouveau appara7t. Les electrons responsab1es de la conduction e1ectrique, qui dans un meta] la temperature ambiante se comportent comme des pa rt i cu 1es es sent i e 11ement independantes, s 1 associent soudain en pa i res don t 1es deux pa rtena i res tou rnen t 1 ' u n au tour de 1 1 au tr e. Ces paires, dites paires de Cooper - p u i sq u e c I est 1 u i q u i 1es a decouvertes - forment une nouvelle particu1e de tres grandes dimensions. Les deux electrons de chacune de ces pa ires res tent constamment a plusieurs dizaines ou centaines de d i s t a n c e s i n t er a tom i q u es 1 1 u n de 1 'autre. Pour ces nouve11es particu1es, les co11isions avec le reseau deviennent sans effet; Jorsqu'un des electrons subit une co11 is ion, son partena ire absorbe le recu1 du reseau, de sorte que la pa ire n'a pas perdu d' impu 1 s ion (ou quantite de mouvement) dans cette co 11 is ion. Les deux e 1ec t ron s de 1a paire changent simultanement d I orb i tes c r is ta 1 1 in e par un processus q u i n e fa i t n i gagner n i perdre d 1 energie a la paire. En d 'au t res termes, cette pa ire ne subit pas une force equivalente de freinage, cequi revient a dire que la resistance electrique a disparu dans le supraconducteur. a DES MATERIAUX NOlNEAUX Des qu 1 il eut decouvert, en 1911, 1e phenomene de la supraconduct iv i te, le physicien hollandais Kamer1ingh Onnes a tout de SU i te pense a la construction d 1 electro-aimants qui ne consommera i ent pas d' energ i e. I 1 dut cependant vi te se rend re compte que cela n'etait pas si facile; la supraconductivite disparaissait rapidement dans un champ magnetique de que1que intensite. Il importait peu que ce champ soi t d I orig i ne externe - parexemp1eproduit par un aimant permanent - ou d I or i gine interne, c'est-a-direproduit par le courant c i rcu 1ant d ans le supraconducteur luimeme. Aujourd 1 hui, heureusement, on comprend bien mieux le phenomene de 1a supraconductivite, surtout en raison de la theorie BCS. On sait que les fi ls supraconducteurs de mater i aux comportant une tres grande densite d 1 imperfections crista11ines sont extremement insens i b 1es a 1 1 i n f 1 u enc e des champs magnetiques. On fabrique ainsi deja des e1ectro-aimants extremement puissants, qui ne consomment pas d 1 energie e1ectrique (hormi s cel le necessaire a la refrigeration), dont les dimensions sont tres reduites comparees a ce11es des e1ectro-aimants classiques et qu'on peut faire fonct ionner comme des a imants permanents en reliant les bornes d 1 al imentation par un fil supraconducteur une fois que le courant a ete etab1i. VASTES PERSPECTIVES D'AVENIR Ces noveaux mater i aux supraconducteurs ouvrent des perspectives toutes nouve11es pour les futures technologies de production d I energie, te11es la fusion thermonucleaire et 1a g~n~ration d'e1ectricite par la methode magnetohyd ro-dynam i que (MHD), ou 1 1 0n aura besoin de champs magnet iques tres puissant s sur de tres grands volumes. On envisage aussi - et un gros effort de recherche y est engage - la construction de c~b1es electriques supraconducteurs, beaucoup p1us economiques que les 1ignesahaute tension d 1 aujourd-hui. Ces nouveaux cab 1es supraconducteu rs seront en forme de tuyaux, a 1' interieur desquels circule 1 'helium 1 i qui de refrigerant. Cette methode a d 1ai 1leurs revolutionne toute recemment la techno1ogie des aimants supraconducteurs e11ememe deja revolutionna ire par rapport aux e1ec t ro-a i mant s 45 �classiques. On vient en effet de construl re au CERN, Geneve, des aimants dechambres a bulles, parmi Jes aimants les plus gros qui soient, avec circulation forcee d 1 he1ium liquide sous presslon. Ce procede s 1 est revele incomparablement plus economique que de plonger l 1 almant entler dans une grosse cuve pleine de refrigerant, qu 1 il fautcontinuel1emen t ma i n ten i r p l e i n e et qu i necess i te un enorme VO 1ume d I he 1 i um, gaz rare qui reste encore cher. La poss i bi l l t e de produ ire des champs magnet i ques i n tenses a peu de frais permet d 1 ai l leurs d' envisager des progres rapides dans bien des domaines, par exemple en medecine, ou 1'on pourra deplacer des obj ets pourvus d'un pet it a imant a l'lnterieur du corps, en particulier du cerveau ou le long de vaisseaux sanguins (navigation intravasculalre). Par cettemethode on a reuss i tout recelllllent aux USA a colmater quatre ruptures d'aneu r I smes (ruptures de vaisseaux sangutns). En exploitation mlniere, on etudie la separation de minerais dont les proprletes magnetiques sont tres legerement differentes. Pour effectuer la separation, i1 suffit de reduire leminerai enpoudres suffisamment f!nes pour que chaque g ra In de 1 a poudre ne cont i enne plus en general qu'un seul compose; un champ intense separe ensu i te 1es differentes sortes de grains. Un gros effort de recherche se produi t auss i dans le doma i ne des transports publ lcs, o~ l 1 on essaye d 1 employer des champs magnetiques autant pour acce lerer que pour supporter un train {levitation). Dans un tel train, les roues decollent du rail des qu 1 une certaine vitesse (environ ?Okm/h)est attelnte; le train 11 flotte 11 ensu l te au-dessus d' une piste d 1 aluminium, repousse par des forces d 1 induction magnetiques. On espereatteindreainsi des vitesses de 500 km/h. Il semb le done que l I on soi t a la vei i le de voir la supraconductivite prendre une place de choix dans a 46 not re vie tech no 1og i que. Cet te en tree a tarde, d 1 abord parce que Jes techniques cryogen i ques sont res tees longtemps confinees aux laboratoires de recherche pure; ensuite parce que 1 1 on pensalt que la supraconductivite nepouvalt pasavoir d 1 interet pratique a molns de pouvoir trouver des supraconducteurs dent la temperature critique depasse 30 ou 40° K. On a du flnalement se rendre a l 1evidence qu I i l y a une sorte de barriere naturelle autour de 20°K. Mais, l 1 avenement d'al l iages fabriques en laboratoire, qui restent supraconducteurs dans des champs magnet i ques t res i ntenses et qui peuvent pa r con s eq u e n t t r a n s po r t e r d e s courants 2000 a 3000 fol s p 1us forts qi...oe le cu i vre, promet des perspectives tellement revolutionnaires et economiquement attractives, qu 1 il a valu la peine de developper la cryogenie pour acceder fac i iement aux temperatures ou ces fabuleuses proprietes devierment realite. Un peu de retenue est de rigueur, cependant~ car les obstacles techniques res tent importants et des debo I res sont encore a prevo i r, tels ceux qu'on a eu dans le domaine des ordinateurs. Ainsi, plusieurs laboratoires americalns ont investl des mi 11 ions pour le deve l oppement de memoires supraconductrices de tres haute densite, mais ont finalement renonce devant certains obstacles encore infranchissables aujourd'huL Il n 1 en reste pas mo ins que la supraconductlvite est une science a suivre pour tous ceux qui s 1 interessent aux technologies d 1 avenir. I '!,John Bardeen de l 1Universite de 1 1 111inois, Leon N. Cooper de 1 'Universite Brown et John Robert Schrieffer de Pennsylvanie. I l 1 Universite de Cet article a paru d'abord dans la Revue Polytechnique (Geneve, juin 1973). �WELCOME TO MY SCHOOL By Ernie Dojack LIVING AND LEARNING I'm not sure I like what I see in our high schools. Ontario has been on the credit system for a few years now. We 1 ve all been 11 1 iving and 1earning 11 • But the Ha11-Dennis report has been gathering dust on my principa1 1 s shelf for a long time. Guidance counse11ors are st i 11 trying to fit student wishes into personal t i met ab 1es . 11 T h e r e ' s s o mu c h choice. 11 11 1 don't know what to take. 11 11 1 hate History and Math.11 Why, I remember when you had to take French and Eng 1 i sh to get into University (and then, if you were 1 i ke me, the first chance you got, you dropped those subjects faster than a hot ring clamp). At last, I made it!! Into the confines of Chemistry and Physics. No more 1 anguages or history. No more iambic pentameter or 1 Kinglear 1 • l 1 msafe. Fina11y, I Im fee 1 i ng comfortable ... very, very, comfortable. A LETTER FRQ\1 LAHR I decided to write this letter even though we haven't been communicating very well. I'm living in a small apartment located in the heart of the Rhine Valley - and somehow I don' t feel as comfortable as I did before. Felix Wankel was born and raised in the little town where I live. R£Jm£1mbor him? He's the f e 11 ow making ,all tho money with his rotary engine. Have you ever driven an Audi? Kurt Mauer lives in my town, too. He's my landlord .. But he only speaks German, so we don't talk much. Brig i t ta is Kurt's daughter. She is only in Grade 5. I will never forget her first words to me. "Hi! How are you?" Brigitta and I talk a lot. In fact, she's my interpreter. I even had to get her to ask Kurt to turn on the heat the other day. Felt a little silly. I just don ' t feel that comfortable any more. I returned from a tremendous holiday the other day. Cyprus, Greece, Jugoslavia, Austria, Italy and France. Not bad, eh! I must have twenty shots of the Acropolis. Never was able to figure out what it was doing up on that hill. Here's a picture of me in Nicoseia, talking over a moussaka with a Turkish Cypriot guard-the one standing with the automatic rifle on his shoulder. He told me to say "Hi" to his daughter in Toronto. He was a real nice guy. He was never able to tell me why the Turks and Greeks a re always fighting. Didn't feel very comfortable there, either. Tell June that I finally saw the Mona Lisa. It looks just .like a Safeway reprint - small too. I don't understand what all the fuss is about. I even went to hear the Berlin Symphony the other night.. Blew the budget - $15 a ticket. It was OK, I guess - i f you like that kind of music. Everyone seemed to worship the conductor; he got a bigger ovation than when the "Rolling Stones" came to town. Honestly! Our Director of Education tells us to use Europe as our classroom, but it's not that easy. I feel a little uncomfortable at times because I know so little about it. In the 1 as t i s sue of CAR E T , Jeanne Sauve said that "everyone must contribute or our society will surely fail in its fundamental obligation to provide a life worth living for its members and their descendants". It felt good to get back to school today. The old Chem. lab 47 �up on the better. chemical examples good third floor never looked nvefine physical and change, and give two of each." I t sure felt taJk.ing about the subject I know. I finally feel comfortable again! Good luck this year. Ernle P.S. Write soon. I Mr. Dojack came from Winnipeg to Port Arthur in 1966. He began his teaching career in Lakeview High Schoo 1 that year. l n the Summer of 1972, he moved to Lahr, West Germany, to begin teaching at one of the Department of National Defence Schools Overseas. He ls presently Head of the Science Department at Lahr, the Senior School. After the term I nation of his 11 Loan of Service" agreement, he w111 be returning to Thunder Bay. I 0I L SUBSTITUTES ? The MONTREAL GAZETTE reported on January 5~ 1974 a discovery by an inventor ca 11 ed John F. Hughes. Mr. Hughes, who was born in Wa 1 es, is a chemist who has found a way of making resins for plastics and coatings from a key carbohydrate, instead of from petroleum derivatives. This of course has great potential in view of the energy er ls is, for i t me a r, s t ha t h l s s t r l k e cou 1d eventual 1y provide a substitute for a multitude of productswhich no,11 rely on o i 1. What is his solution? lt is a substance that is cheap and plentiful - starch. While the easiest source of starch is corn, i t can be extracted from potatoes or tapioca. More than 60% of easily processable starch can be obtained from a dried ear of corn. There are an enormous 48 number of advantages and repercussions that could be derived from the scientist's flnd. Starch is, of course, a reriewab 1e commod l ty; o i ! ls irreplaceabls,. As wei las helping to solve problems of non-renewable energy resources,aid to ecology is also possible, for un 1 i ke regular commercial paint, paint made from starch res!n d1sintegrates once it ls buried,, !t would cost much less to make the pal nt. The raw materials used are cheaper; those used in late>c paint, for example, cost $ 2,50 a gal 1on, while those in Hughes' mixture would cost $1 .56 a gallon. Thls would be of advantage in holding down inflation, Two years ago, Hughes got a small team together and incorporated Plastistarch in order to continue research and development. Paint make.rs and other major companies are fina1 ly evaluating hls resinbased coatings and they are negotiating to l i cense the process. Japan Maize Products of Tokyo is showing the most interest, but several major U.S. starch and oil companies and a couple of European petrochemical companies are interested as well. C.A.NADI.AN SUPPORT IS LAGGING The inventor already has one United States patent and around the wor 1d sever a I others a re pending. However, his lawyer stated that 11 we get zero support from Canada", He, Digby Clarke, financially supports the enterprise, He added that neither the Nationa'I R.esearch Council nor the Federal or Provir:clal Government could be convinced to support Plastistarch, "lOl" could any major company. Clarke blames Canada 0 s ilcold shouider 11 on the fact that many others have trled to do what Hughes has done, but failed. He Is, in fact, turning back the clock thirty years or more whennatural products were used to make natural synthetics, and when plastics were l i t t 1e used . �ARISTOTLE'S IDEAS ON By O. G. Hughes Wlil\T ARISTOTLE SAID It is likely that you, the reader of this article, if you have been exposed to the study of mechanics, think that Ga1i1eo and Newton were the firsf to say anything useful or sensible about it. It is evenpossib1e you believe that because Aristotle lived and died in the 4th century B.C. his ideas on physics can only be laughable. It is certain that if you believe this, you are wrong. Aristot1e 1 s ideas on motion are 1arge1y contained in two of his books, "On the Heavens" and "Physics". These books are probably versions of his lecture notes edited by his fo11owers; they are easy to read and understand, whereas books about Aris tot 1e tend to be neither. He begins, in 11 0n the Heavens 11 , by drawing a fundamental di st i net ion between natural and unnatural motion, the former being that which bodies have of their own nature, the latter requiring some external agent to act on the body. Natural motions are further subdivided into upwards (i.e. away from the centre of the earth}, downwards (i.e. towards the centre) and circular.. C 1ass if i cation of this sort is typical of a scientific approach to any problem, but in choosing three subdivisions, Aristotle seems to be governed by reasons which appear alien to us: he points out that three is the 1owest number of objects of which we use the word 11 a 11 11 ( 11 both 11 being used of two objects) and therefore this number has a quality of • •In " one n or comp 1eteness 1ac k 1ng 11 11 two • EARll-lLY AND t-EAVENLY t'OTIONS These ideas are then applied to account for the motions actually OTI N observed around us, but in doing so Aristot1e is careful to distinguish the behaviour of objects near the earth from that of objects in the remoter reg ions of the sky. For him the moon I s orbit round the earth divided the universe into two, the terrestial or sublunary region and the heaven 1y reg ion . I n t he s u b lunary part of the universe, all material objects were compounded of the four basic elements: earth, water, air and fire, these being idea 1 i zed essences of the common substances with those names. This idea did not or i g i n ate w i th Aristotle but was handed on to him by his predecessors. Aristotle, however, introduced the further notion that these e 1ements each had the i r proper place in the universe; earth, for examp1e, belonged properly to the centre of the universe (which was, for Aris tot 1e, at the centre of the terrestria1 globe) whi1e fire belonged to the heavens. Objects made of these elements wi 11 , if free to do so, move with a natural motion in such a way as to find their proper place; earth wi 11 move naturally towards the centre in a straight 1 ine and is class ified as absolutely heavy; fire moves natura11y upwards and is absolutely light; water and air are only relatively heavy or light and their natural motions, sti111inear, wi11 be towards or away from the centre according to the medium which surrounds them. Opposed to these 1 inear natural motions of the sublunary elements is circular motion which is a natural motion only in the heavens, being an unnatu ra 1 or forced motion i n the earthly region: circular motion is natural to the fifth element, introduced by Ar i st o t 1e , the aether, which exists, incorruptible, without beginning or end, only in the heavens. (This incidentally, leaves little room for 49 �the Biblical account of the creation of the universe and was one of the reasons behind the attempts made in Paris in the thirteenth century to prohibit the public teaching of Aristot1e 8 s work.) AGREEMENT IS QUALITATIVE, NOT QLWITITATIVE These basic ideas take us a surprising 1y long way in exp 1a in i ng (whatever that word may mean) the everyday observation of objects moving without constraint. Earthly objects, such as rocks, do fa11 and in a straight 1 ine towards' th 7 centre of the earth; fiery obJects, such as flames and smoke do rise upwards; water surrounded' by earth r i s e s i n mo u n t a i n springs, but falls as rain when surrounded by air; the stars in the heavens do appear to move in circles. But the agreement with observation is qualitative only (and not even that when we consider forced motions), so that when Aristotle, in showing that it is impossible for a vacuum to exist, assumes that the time taken foran object to fall a certain distance is inverse1y proportional to its weight, he is assuming a quantitative relationship which is simply wrong. Heavy objects do, of course, fa11 faster than 1 i ght ones of the same size in a res i st i n g medium, though not to the extent Aristotle thought, and the resistance of the surrounding medium does affect the velocity of the fa11, though again not in the way Aris tot 1e thought. So hi s argument - when resistance is reduced to zero by a11owing the object to fall in a vacuum the velocity of fall will be infinitely large, which is impossib1e, so ~ vacuum cannot exist - though 1og I ca 11 y fa u 1 t 1 e s s g i v e s a wrong answer because it is based on wrong assumptions. 50 NATURAL AND UNNATURAL t'KJTION Aristotle was we11 aware that fa11 ing objects moved faster the further they fe11 and had a perfect 1y good exp 1a n a t i on , name 1y , that for objects moving in accordance with their nature towards their proper place, the climax of the motion would occur at the goa1 towards which they were striving; for unnatural motions, the contrary was true, and this was borne out for Aristot1e by the observation that a stone thrown vertically upwards wi11 s1ow down as it rises further from its proper place. In d i scu s sing n a tu r a 1 mot i on , then, Aristotle's ideas seem not unreasonable, at least qua1itative1y. In treating forced motion, he was 1ess successful and it was not long before his ideas on the motion of a project i 1e were disputed. You may think it easy to show that the path of an arrow or a thrown ba 11 i s , a t 1ea s t r o u g h 1y , a parabo1a and so, in an age when multiple-exposure photographs are commonplace, it is. But when the ballistics experts in the sixteenth century knew that a cannon ba 11 rose along a sloping straight line to the highest point of its trajectory, they knew it because the gunners to1d them so. If you think this i s stupid i ty, t r y as k i n g a Grade 9 student what happens to the speed of an arrow after it has lef~ the bow (for that matter, try asking yourse1f, or a third-year university student). THERE WAS A SHJRTAGE OF EQUIPMENT! Everyday experience p 1 us high inte11igence are not always enough to so1ve even the simplest problems in physics; that is why we are driven to use special laboratories and complicated equipment. But Ar i st o t 1e was not foo 1 i sh because he lacked these faci1ities and you would be foo1ish to think him so. □ �KENORA ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEY Lakewood's environmental chemistry students have received the resuJts of a survey conducted in December DO YOU FEEL OUR TOWN HAS SUFFICIENT LITTER RECEPTACLES? 4. and January on 355 Kenora residents. The ten quest ions a 11 relate to environmental issues. The question responses were cross-tabulated according to sex, age and income groups. The survey resu 1ts were keypunched and tab u 1at ed by the Computer Centre at lakehead University. I SURVEY RESULTS I I I BELOW 18 TO 25 TO OVER 21.% 20% 18 25 45 45 11 I I LOW -------------------AVERAGE ---------------HIGH ------------------- :Ll.% ~% MALE ------------------FEMALE----------------- L;a5% 53% L;:L% [A 11 resu 1ts are correct to on 1y two significant figures, consequently totals may vary from 100%.] SURVEY QUESTIONS 1. DO YOU FEEL GOVERNMENT IS CONTROLLING INDUS TR I AL POLLUTION ADEQUATELY? YES: 20% f(): BO% 2. DO YOU FEEL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION SHOULD BE A POLITICAL ISSUE? YES: 7:L% NO: 29% 3. DO YOU FEEL THE NEWS MEDIA CONVEY OUR POLLUTION PROBLEM EFFICIENTLY? YOUR TRASH? YES: NO: YES: 47% t,¥): 53% 69% 31% 6. ARE YOU REDUCING FUEL CONSUMPTION IN YOUR HOME AND AUTOfvOBI LE TO MEET THE ENERGY CRISIS? 45% 55% 7. WOULD YOU UTILIZE A PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM IF SERVI CE WERE INCREASED? YES: NO: 2L;% SEX I 5. WOULD YOU CONSIDER SEPARATING CLEAN PAPER FOR RECYCLING, FROM 3L;% INCc»E GROUPS I 32% 68% YES: NO: AGE GROUPS I I YES: NO: 8. WOULD YOU REPAIR YOUR AUTOMOBILE TO MEET EMISSION CONTROL STANDARDS? YES: NO: 6L;% 36% 9. WOULD YOU CONS IDER PAY I NG AN ADDITIONAL $2. 70/YEAR FOR IMPROVED SEWAGE TREATMENT; J.E. TERTIARY TREATMENT? YES: NO: 77% 23% 10. WOULD YOU SWITCH TO A LOWPHOSPHA TE DETERGENT IF YOUR PRESENT DETERGENT CONTAINED EXCESSIVE PHOSPHATE? YES: 89% NO: 11% The computer print-out was analyzed by the en v i r on men t a 1 c h em i s t ry students in groups with the fo 11owi ng results: QUESTION 1 ANALYSIS Young people, in particular, were concerned over the government I s ineffectiveness at curbing i ndust r i a 1 po 1 J u t i on . QUESTION 2 ANALYSIS The 71 % con census indicates that 51 �leaders had best generate and make known sound plat- our political QUESTION 9 ANALYSIS forms wl th respect to env i ronmenta 1 protection issues. Middle age males in particular were concerned over the lack of litter receptacles throughout the town. Kenon::i boasts a modern secondary treatment plant that is 90% effective at removing wastes from domestic sewage (unless it rains), Further improvement of existing facilities wouid cost the Kenora taxpayer $2, 70 per person per year (Environment Science & Technology, November 1973). It is interesting to note that the people most willing to pay were the younger people who generally are not involved In taxpayl ng. QUESTION 5 ANALYSIS QUEST ION 10 ANAL.VS IS We were very elated to f Ind such Asan,sult of the studies conduct- QUESTION 3 ANALYSIS Very reassurlng to know that news media are conveying pollution prob- lems adequately. QUESTION 4 ANALYSIS positive responses to the recyc 1 Ing question. Consequently, a feasibil i ty study is expected to take pl ace in the very near future to discuss the rec y c 1 i n g con c e p t . It i s interesting to note that approximately 59% of our municipal trash consists of recyc.1 eab I e paper wh l ch could be sold to the paper industry for $15-$60 per ton, if processing facilities were available. QUESTION 6 ANALYSIS Middle agema1es of average and high incomes are not too interested in voluntary reduction of fuel consumption. QUESTION 7 ANALYSIS A 60% 11 YES 11 to tak l ng a bus ls a particularly.favourable response. This indicates a truly sincere desire to reduce both air pollution as well as the petrol shortage. Young and mi dd 1e age ma 1es were the least responsive to this question. QUESTION 8 Al'\JALYSIS The favourable response was part icularl y evident for above income young males. The flaw in this question stems from the fact that not ail people surveyed are ln possession of a vehicles 52 ed at the Fisheries Research Station southeast of Kenora, under the able leadership of Dr. D. Schindler [1970]; it has been conclusively proven that phosphates (present in most detergents) are the cause of the over-enrichment (eutrof i cat ion) of our Northwestern Ontario waters. 89% of all people surveyed are willing to substitute for their present detergent an effective low-phosphate detergent or soap" Analyses of phosphate in detergents co J 1ected in the survey are present 1 y underway by the environmental chemistry students. I The details of this survey were sent to us by Mr. Robert Aitken who teaches at Lakewood Secondary School in Kenora. I AI RCRAFT SIGHT? l CONTROL COLlffi I END IN Since the early days of flying, the main method of controlling fl lght movements has been by operating the control column or 1 joystlck 1• The Royal Aircraft Establishment in Farnborough, Engl and has devised an electronic system which does the work more effectively and more quickly, �LE CHAMP MAGNETIQUE TERRESTRE Par Gaston Fischer Nous nous proposons de parler d 1un champ magnet i que beacoup pl us fa I b 1e, celui de la Terre. Chacun conna1t 1 1 existence de ce champ q u i a 1 i gne 1 'aigui 1 le des boussoles et permet au voyageur de s'orienter. Ce que 1e profane sa it mo ins souvent, c I est que ce champ varie d I un endroit a 1 1 autre de la Terre, qu' i 1 varie dans le temps et qu I a tous 1es ages i 1 a et i n t i memen t 1i ea 1 I h i st O i re de not rep 1anete. Nous a 11ons, dan s le present artic1e, essayer de presenter ces divers aspects du champ magnetique terrestre (CMT)et, autant que possible, essayer de 1es comprendre. e DEUX POLES NORD Les usagers de 1 a bou s so 1 e, en partlcu1ar 1es navigateurs, se sont assez tot rendus compte que la bousso1 e ne poi nta it pas, en genera 1, exactement vers le nord geog raph i que, c 1 est-a-dire vers le po1e de rotation de la Terre. On a ainsi ete conduit a et ab 1 i r des ca rtes q u i donnent pour chaque end ro i t du g 1obe la deviation angulaire, OU declinaison*, du nord magnet i que par rapport au nord geographique. le CMT est une grandeur di r i gee, done un vecteur, caracteri see non seu 1 ement par son amplitude ou grandeur,mais aussi par sa direction dans 1 1 espace. C1 est pourqoi 1 1 0n represente souvent un champ magnet i que a 1 1 aide du concept des lignes de force. On con~oit done bien qu 1 a la surface de la Terre 1e vecteur magnetique n i est pas represente uniquement par 1a decl inaison et 1 • amp 1 i tude q u e nous v en on s de def i n i r , ma i s q u I i 1 fa u t au s s i donne r son inclinaison par rapport a 1 1 horizontale. La representation mathemat i que de CMT permet de faire la distinction entre une partie reguliere (champ dipolaire) et des anomalies du CMT. Les p61es magnitiques ne coincident pas avec les po1es geographiques, cause principale des fortes declinaisons qu'on observe lorsqu'on s'approche des poles magnet iques, et d 1 autre part, on note que les deux pOles magnetiques ne sont pas dans des positions symetriques par rapport au centre de 1a Terre. Fina1ement, 1a dec1 inalson, et par suite aussi les autres parametres du CHT, ne sont pas immuables. En fait, s' i 1 est vrai que la decl ina1son varie peu d'une annee a l'autre, Jes instruments precis et sensibles dont on dispose aujourd'hui demontrent sans ambiguite que tousles parametres du CMT changent continue 11 ement en un endroit donne. On a observe que ces changements semb1ent decouler presque entierement d'une Jente mais irregul iere rotation d 'est en ouest des anomalies du CMT. On estime qu'un tour comp1et de ce mouvement requ i ert de 2 a 5 mi 1 1 e ans. En Suisse, 1a decl in aison dlminue maintenant d 1 un dixieme de degre par an et l 1i nc 1 i na i son est pratiquement stationna1re. Les prop r i etes du CMT que nous venons de presenter peuvent toutes etre verifiees a 1 1 aide de la boussole classique bien connue. Si l'on nedisposait pasd'instruments plus precis et surtout plus sensibles, on pourrait croire que le CMT est de nature tres qui ete, soum is seul ement a ces 1entes variations seculaires que nous avons deer i tes plus haut. On en concluerait aussi q u I i 1 est d I O r i g i n e e n t i e r eme n t interne a 1a Terre, resu 1 tant de quelque boucle de courant pres du centre de notre pJanete. Comme nous a11ons le voir, il n'en est pas du tout ainsi. UNE ACTIVITE FEBRILE Les magnetometres moder ne s ont reve le que le CHT eta it continue J 1emen t 1e s i eg e de var I at i on s rap i des autour de cette valeur moyenne 53 �qu'indique 1a boussole. Si 1a bousso1e ne permet pas, en genera1, de 1es dece 1er, c I est que 1'amp 1 i t ude de ces var i at ions n I est q u e de 1 1 ordre du mi 11 ieme de 1 1 amp 1 i tude de ce champ moyen ou champ principal que mesure la bousso1e. Si 1 1 0n accepte que la majeure part i e du CMT provient de courants electriques a plusieurs mi 1 J iers de ki1ometres sous 1a surface de la Terre, alors Jes 1ois de 1 'e1ectrodynamique nous disent que ces variations rapides ne peuven t en aucun cas ven i r de 1 1 i n t er i e u r de 1a Terre ( eff et "skin" ou de peau), et viennent par consequent de 1 'es pace. 11 y a done deux sources di st i nctes au CMT, 1 1 une interne et 1 'autre externe a 1a p1anete, ma is nous verrons auss i que ces deux sources ne sont pas sans interactions aux consequences importantes. LE CIW1P INTERNE la sismoJogie, ou etude des tremb 1emen ts de t e r re , a rev~ 1 e q u e l'interieurde notre planete n'etait sol ide que j usqu I a une profondeur d'environ 2900 km. Cette partie est appe1ee manteau de la Terre. Audessous, en raison des temperatures e1evees qui regnent a ces profondeurs, la Terre a un noyau liquide, forme essentie11ement de fer fondu. Tout au centre de 1a Terre, on a finalement un coeur de fer so 1 i de, d 'un r a yon d I e n v i r on 1 3 0 0 km. Ce t t e solidification est le resultat des pressionsenormes, de plusieurs millions d 1 atmospheres, qui regnent au centre du globe. A )'interface, entre manteau et noyau, la conduct i Vite electr i que change brusquement' 1e noyau 1iquide etant environ 1000 fois plus conducteur que le manteau solide. A cause de sa rotation avec 1a planete, cette masse hautement CO n du Ctr i Ce est 1e siege de phenomenes d I i nduct ion e 1 ec t romag net iques et semb1e fonctionner comme une dynamo unipo1aire. le caractere encore quelque peu conditionne1 de 54 cette affirmation est du au fa it que 1a repartition exacte des 1 ignes de courant de 1a vra i e dynamo terres t re n 1 a pas encore ete elucidee. 11 nous reste a comprendre pourquoi la partie pr inc i pa 1 e du CMT est s i i r reg u 1 i ere a 1a s u r face d e la Terre. Revenons a 1 1 interface ent re manteau so 1 i de et noyau 1i qui de. On do it admett re que cet te surf ace n ' e s t n i b i e n f r a n c h e , n i p a rfa i tement spher i que. 11 y a une zone de transit ion qui est 1e siege de forces de frot temen t. La rotation du so 1 i de entra1ne bien le 1 iquide, mais par suite de causes qui ne sont pas encore bi en connues, i 1 ya par moments des differences de vitesse de rotation ent re 1 i qui de et so 1 i de. A cause de ces differences de vi tesse et des irregularites de 1 'interface, 1e 1 i qui de s I ecou 1e de fa con tu r bulente au voisinage de 1 1 interface. Mais puisque c'est danscette region que circu1ent Jes plus forts courants de la dynamo terrestre, ces courants sont devies par la turbulence de la matiere 1iquide et sont a 1eur tour de nature turbu1ente. Le champ magnetique produit par ces courants irregu1 iers est Jui aussi irregul ier. Vu 1a g rand e u r de 1 1 eche 11 e s u r 1aque 11 e se produ i sent ces phenomenes, la duree des irregularites du courant et du champ est tres grande et de toute maniere, a cause de 1 1 e ff et de pea u c i t e p 1us hau t, seu1es Jes fluctuations tres lentes du champ peuvent etre per~ues a la surface de 1a Terre; 1a duree des fluctuations 1es p 1us rap ides est de 1'ordre de 10 a 100 ans. Une partie des i rregularites du champ principa 1 provient done de 1a turbu1ence des courants du noyau. Une deux ieme partie provient des inhomogeneites du manteau solide. La distribution de ces inhomogeneites est e11ememe sujette a une lente evo 1 u ti on; en effet, malgre le qualificatif de 11 so 1 i de 11 , 1e manteau est en mouvement a des vitesses de 1 1 ordre de l a 10 cm/an par ecoulement plastique d 1 un ensemb1e de ce11u1es de matiere. �Quant a la derive d'est en ouest des an oma 1 i es du CMT, on ne sa it pas, pour 1 1 instant, s 1 i 1 s 'agit d I un phenomene pas sager ou permanent. Ce s On t 1es re 1eves re Ce n ts' de quelques centa i nes d 'annees au p 1us, qui la re1event, mais on n'a pas encore pu en confirmer l'existence dans un passe plus lointain. Aucune explication theorique de son existence ne s'est d'ai 1 leurs imposee. LE CfWP EXTERNE Comme nous le disions plus haut, la seconde contribution au CMT est d'origine externe et comprend en particu1 ier toutes Jes variations rapides de ce champ. L'environnement de la Terre se revele, a mesure qu 1 on le connaft mieux, plus comp1exe qu on ne le pen sa i t d I abord. Au-dessus de 1 1 atmosphere terrestre, clans 1es couches inferieures de 1aque11e nous vivons, on trouve des reg ions t res divers if i ees de par le nombre et le type de particules qu 1 e11es contiennent. Certa i nes de ces reg ions ne renfennent guere que des particules chargees, electrons et protons, 1 iees a 1a Terre precisement par son champ magnet i que qui force ces part i cu 1es sur des orb i tes assez bi en defi n i es. Aces mouvements de particules chargees sont associes des courants en haute altitude et par suite des ch a mp s ma g n t j q u e s . D I a u t r e s particules chargees sont envoyees ver s 1a Terre pa r 1e s o 1e i 1 , e n meme t em p s q u e 1a 1um i ere , b i e n qu I a des vi tesses 100 OU 1000 f o i s moins grandes que la vitesse de la lumiere. Ce vent solaire interagit violer1111ent avec le CMT. Dans les regions eloignees de la Terre le vent solaire domine completementla scene etablissant son propre champ magnetique. Entre la surface de choc et 1a magnetopause se t rouve la zone ou les particules chargees du vent solaire sont dev i ees de leur trajectoire rectil igne par le e CHT ; e C I es t 1 a r g i O n OU V e n t so 1a i re et CM T i n t er a g i s sent violemment. A 1 1 interieur de la magnetopause, la Terre reuss it a etab 1 i r 1es 1 i gnes de force de son champ, c'est la magnetosphere, mais la magnetosphere se t rouve compr imee par le vent solaire, tandis que de l'autre cote le vent solaire semble entrainer au loin les 1 ignes de force du CMT. La compress ion du CMT par le vent solatre produit la surface de la Terre des variations di urnes o u j o u r n a 1 i r e s Ca r a C t er i s t i q u e s ' d i ff er en t es d'endro it en endro it, et dependantes avant tout de 1a latitude. Ma i s 1e vent so 1a i re n ' es t pa s un vent regul ier; en real ite il est connu pour ses sautes d'humeur, en genera 1 imp rev is i b 1es, refl ets de ce q u e 1 ' on a pp e 1 1e 1 'acti vi te solaire. Le nombre et 1a grandeur des taches solaires sont un indice de cette ativite. Plus i 1 y a de taches, plus la surface du soleil est en activite et plus le vent solaire souffle enrafales turbulent es q u i s e t rad u i sent , a 1a surface de la Terre, par d I i mportantes et rapides variations des parametres du CMT. On parle a cet egard d'activite geomagnetique ou, selon Jes cas, d'orages magnetiques. Comme l'activite solaire est soumise a un cycle de 11 ans, avec des annees calmes et des annees de grande activite, il en va de meme de l'activite geomagnetique. 11 y a enc o re d ' au t res per i od i c i te s , soit 1 iees au systeme So lei 1-Terre donna n t 1i e u en pa r t i c u 1 i e r au x variations diurnes et a des variations annuel les, soi t au So 1e i 1 s e u 1 qui s em b 1 e re s u jet certaines variations periodiques tres lentes, dont une de 60 ans, une autre d'environ 78 ans, et probablement d'autres aux per i odes encore beaucoup plus longues. On voit a ins i que 1 e champ externe produit a la surface de la Terre des fluctuations couvrant un spectre quasi cont inu, depu is Jes a e et a 55 �periodes les p1us courtes (moins d 1 une seconde) aux periodes 1es plus longues. Le champ d'origine interne, par cont re, ne peut cont r i buer qu 'aux variations lentes, commen~ant par les variations seculaires; mais nous verrons maintenant comment, dans le domaine des variations lentes, des interactions entre Jes deux sources de champ se produisent. Des ins tab i 1 i t es de 1 a dynamo terrestre ou des renversements des poles magnetiques. Nous avons vu plus haut que 1 a dynamo uni po 1a ire n' est qu'un mode 1e ext remement schemat i que de la dynamo terrestre, dynamodonton ne conna,t pas, en realite, le fonctionnement exact, et surtout pas la distribution des courants. Neanmoins on peut tout de meme, tirer des conclusions genera1es valables pour toutes les dynamos unipolaires, en particul ier celle de la Terre. En circulant dans 1e disque et le fil de la dynamo, le courant transforme de Jlenergie en chaleur qui se perd, par exemple par rayonnement, vers 1 'environnement. La source de Ce t t e en e r g i e e S t me Ca n i q Ue : en 1 1 absence d' un moteur entra, nant 1 1 arbre de 1a dynamo, cel le-ci se ralentit et finit par s'arreter. 11 en va de meme de la dynamo ter rest re; bi en que ce soi t par 1 e bi a i s de mecan i smes ma) connus, 1 1 energie que dissipent les courants de la dynamo proviennent en dern i er ressort du mouvement de rotation de la Terre. Notons en passant que ce reservoir d'energie est tres grand; 1e r a 1en t i s semen t d e 1 a r o t a t i o n terrestre se tradu i t par une augmentation annue11e dela longueur dujour de 20 mi 11 ion i emes de seconde environ, ce qu'on peut aussi exprimer en disant que la longueur du jour, il ya 600 millions d I annees, ne va 1a it q u e 2 1 de nos heures. Une partiedu ralentissement vi ent d I a i 1 1 e u rs d I aut res causes, telles les marees et 1eur dissipation d'energie par frottement. 56 Une Autre propriete de 1a dynamo unipolai re est eel le de fonct ionner indifferemment avec un champ magnetique oriente paral lelement OU antipara11e1ement a 1 1 axe de rotation. Pour voir cela supposons la machine en rot at ion, mais en 1 'absence de champ magnet i q u e; i 1 n 'y aura done pas non plus de courant indu it. Supposons ma i ntenant qu'une perturbation passagere produ i se un champ magnet i que para 11 e1e a l'axe. Si la machine satisfait certains criteres de construction, cette perturbation i ndu i t des courants qui renforcent le champ perturbateur, ou pour le moins la composante se 1on 1 1 axe de 1a dynamo. Apres disparition de la perturbation • il reste done un champ dirige dans l'axe de la dynamo. Selon la direction de la perturbation on aura un champ dirige dans un sens ou dans l'autre de 1 'axe, et surtout on voit que la situation ou le champ • est nu1 est instable vis-a-vis de la plus petite perturbation. Mais la conclusion principa1e a tirer de cette propriete de la dynamo unipolaire, est que le CMTn'estpas unvestigedupassequi va diminuant, mais est continue11ement entretenu par 1a rotation de 1 a Terre. La dynamo terrest re est done une dynamo se 1f-exci tee. D I au tr e part s i 1 e mod e 1 e s i mp 1 i f i e de d y n a mo est sensible aux perturbations externes, la dynamo terrestre avec sa di st r i but ion de courants tres comp 1exe et su rt out non 1oca 1 i ses par des fi ls comme le mode le, y est encore beaucoup plus sensible. C'est la que se trouve le mecanisme d' interaction entre les champs de s o u r c e ex t e r n e e t i n t e r n e . La dynamo terrestre est instable visa-v i s de cert a i ne s p e r t u r b a t i o n s d'origine externe qui peuvent aller jusqu'a renverser la polarite de la dynamo terrestre. En fa it, on admet que la dynamo terrestreest instable meme en 1 'absence de perturbations externes et 1'on a reuss i �a creer, en 1aboratoire, des dynamos se 1f-exc i tees d I un type nature 11 ement plus comp1exe, qui changent de po1arite de fa'5on tout a fait aleato ire. Les etudes pa 1eomagnetiques, c'est-a-dire 1 1 etude du magnetisme remanent des 1aves et des roches sedimentaires qui se sont formees a des ages di fferents, reve 1ent 1 ' histo ire du CMT et fourn i ssent une preuve inden i ab 1e des renversements fr~quents de la po 1ar i te du CHT. E11 es ont auss i montre qu 1 i 1 y a eu, dans 1 e passe, autant de per i odes av ec la po 1ar i te que nous avons auj ou rd• hu i que de periodes a polarite inversee. PALEOMAGNETISME ET DERIVE DES CONTINENTS le pa 1eomagnet i sme n I a pas perm is seu 1ement de conf i rmer 1es inversions depo1ariteduCHT et de reconstituer toute 1 1 his to ire de ses variations seculaires en intensite et direction, mais il est en train de fourni rune information precise et deta i 11 ee du mecanisme des inversions. 11 faut de 3 a 20 mi11e ans pour completer une fnvers ion qui se man i fest e par des signes precurseurs te1s qu'un aff a i b 1 i ssement de 1 •amp 1 i tude du CMT a I a surface de 1a Terre et des oscillations p1us rapides et plus grandes de sa direction autour des poles geographiques. Un comportement semb 1ab 1e pr~cede 1e retab 1 i ssement d • un regime p 1us stab 1 e en posit ion inversee. Ces etudes, ilest certain, permettront une comprehension mei 1leure de la dynamo terrestre. le paleomagnetisme est en voie de fournir encore bien d 1 autres clefs vers la connaissance du passe de not re planete. Faute de p 1 ace, nous ne po u v on s en s i g n a 1 e r q u e 1a p 1 u s revo 1ut i onna ire. le magnet i sme remanent des roches d I u ne certa i ne region conduit en genera 1 a des resultats parfaitement concordants quanta 1 1 histoire du CMT. Ces regions sont souvent de la grandeur d'un continent ent ier et i 1 est al ors inter es s ant de cons tater que 1es d i rec t ions de 1a magnet i sat ion remanente d'une epoque bi en def in i e convergent toutes vers un po1e qui se trouve alnsi etre bien 1oca1 ise. Si l'on passe a un autre continent, ou que1quefois a une autre partie d'un continent, on constatea nouveau une concordance parfaite de toutes les donnees de cette nouve11e region, mais un desaccord total avec ce 11 es dedu i tes des echanti11ons du premier continent. Une etude approfondie de ces desaccords a demontre de fa~on eclatante qu 1 ils provenaient tout s imp 1 emen t de 1a derive des continents, a 1a surface de la Terre. On a meme pu recons t ru ire 1 1 his to ire de la derive des divers continents, ou sous-continents, Pun par rapport a l'autre durant les 600 mi11ions d1 annees qui nous precedent. L'hypothese formu1ee i1 y a 60 ans par Wegener se trouve non seulement confirmee, mais on commence meme a comprendre aujourd'huiles mecanismes par 1esque1s ces derives se sont produ i tes. Les donnees recue i 11 ies jusqu'a ce jour suggerent qu 1 i1 ya quelques centaines de millions d'annees encore, toutes 1es terres emergees ne formaient qu 1 un seu1 continent. Le morce11ement qui a suivi s 'est fa i t en p1usieurs etapes. Par exemple, 1 1 As ie d I auj ou rd I hu i comp rend un souscont inent, 1 1 lnde, qui a vogue seul a UOe Certa j ne epOqUe, apreS SI etre detache d 1 une plaque qui contenait l'Afrique et 1 1 Antarctique il y a probablement moins de 100 mill ions d 1 annees, pour heurter la masse conti nenta 1e de 1 1 Eurasie (nom donne au b1ock Europe-Asie)voici 30 a 40 mi 11 ions d' annees seulement. Les p 1 i ssements et sou 1evements qui ont forme la cha1ne des montagnes de PHimalaya en sont 1a consequence et 1 'on a de fortes raisons de penser que la poussee du souscontinent indien sur 1 1 Eurasie n 1 a pas encore cesse. Nous avons pu nous conva i ncre que 1a science du geomagnet i sme a pro- 57 �gresse bien au-dela de l'art de la boussole et qu 1el1e fourn it aujourd 1 hu i • un des moyens d I etude 1es pl us p~issants de~ ~henomenes geophysiques, c'est-a-dire des phenomenes qui se "passent et se SOnt:paSSeS autOUr'et a l I interieur de notre plahete. La' connaissance de"cepasse et des mecanismes act ifs pres"ehtement nous condufra peutetre a modifier notre comportement et influencera la prf se de certaihes dedsions, la bu Jes activites huma ines sont" en interact ion avec l•s processus naturels. I ,'tNous ecrivons en itaHque Jes termes du JargonscieAtifique a leurpremiere apparition. Ces termes ont eA geheral une signification scientiHque bien precise dans le Jangage du, chercheur· special ise~I • Apres avo1.r obte'.nu un diplome' de physicif!ri de l'Edole Polytechn£que Federale de Zurich en 1953, Gaston Fischer s'engagea dans une Carriere en physique des do.rps sol ides. I l s'est interesse' tour a tour aux dielectriques,aux semiconducteurs et a·ux metaux. Un travail sur les prop.r ietes semiconductrices de InSb qu'il f i t au Canada lui permit d'obten1.:t son doctora.t de l'Universitre' de Neuchatel en 1959. C' est en etudiant le dompoitement de metaux aux fr~uences inidro-ondes qu ' i l s 'i'.nteressa au phenomene de la supraconductivite. Depuis environ deux ans M. Fischer est cod'i.r~cteur de l 'Observatoire cantOnal de Neuchatel et son activite s' est d~placee ve.rs les sciences de la Terre, en partier.Hier le geomagnetism~. Cet article a paru d'abord dans la Revue Polytechnique (G~neve, ju in 1973). 58 I COMPUTERS HELP AMPUTEES 1 AN ITEM IN THE MONT~EAL GAZETTE OF NOVEMBER 27, 1973 REPOR1ED THAT PERFECT. LIMB REPLACEMENTS f"OR AMPUTEES AAE BEING DEVELOPEDWITH THE HELP OF . C()vtPUTERS. THE UN IVERS I TY OF BR I Tl SH "COL~IA, IT SAID, IS PUTTING THE FINISHING TOUCHES TO RESEARCH, WHICH HAS AS ITS OBJECT THE PROVISION .FOR AMPUTEES OF UMBS WITH PROPORTIONS IDENTICAL TO.THOSEOFJHE LOST ONE. IT·WAS REPORTED THAT JAMES DUNCAN, WHO HAS ASSISTED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTIFICIAL LIMB APPARATUS, SAID THAT EACH YEAR t-t)RE Tl-iAI\I 20;000 ARTIFICIAL LIMBS ARE NEEDED IN NORTH AMERICA. ··UNTIL NON. IT HAS· BEEN NECESSARY FOR DOCTORS AND ME-CHANLCSTO MEASURE THE LIMB PHYSICALLY, MANIPULATE THE ALREAO¥ TRAUMATIZED PATIENT AND MAKE SEVERAL FITTINGS. THIS IS NATURALLY PSYCHOLOGICALLY DISTURBING AND DISTRESSING~ THE NAT. I ONAL AND MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCILS IN OTTAWA HAVE BOTH BEEN SUPPQRTING THE UNDERT%fNG FINANCIALLY SO THAT.DUNCAN AND A SKILLED TEAM OF PR()fESSIONALS IN MEDICI1'!E, MATHEMATICS ! 0 0 ~I~ ~"=bc~F ~i~~H~·~ ~~ RECORDING ON TELEVI S ION,THE .DIMENSIONS AND DETAILS OF THE LIMB. • THE COMPUTER IS INFORMED' OF THESE MEASUREMENTS, BY TELEPHONE IN SOME CASES. THEN THIS INFORMATION JS REASSEMBLED AND FED INTO A MACHINE WHICH ACTUALLY MAKES THE FINAL CAST . THE PICTURE IS COMPLETED, DUNCAN SAID., BY "LIMB COSMETICS'', WHICH GIVE THE LEG OR ARM ITS SMOOTH; FLESHY APPEARANCE AND HIDE.THE MECl-iAI\IICAL DETAILS. IT CAN TAKE LESS THAN 24 HOURS TO Ca-1PLETE THE PRODUCTION OF A LIMB AT A COST OF LESS THAN. $ 1 0 0., EXCLUSIVE OF MECHANICAL JOINTS. THE PROJECT HAS TAKEN FOUR YEARS .. THEIR NEXT PROJECT IS TO LAUNCH INTO "THE CLINICAL STAGE OF TRIALS WI TH PATIENTS IN VANCOUVER AND OTHER Cc:>r-'MUNITIES". □ �THE CONTINUING ADVENTURES OF MATHMAN By The lakehead University Math Club SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS ACTION After finally reducing the 8th degree differential equation to a ' series of harmless 1st degree differential equations, l1ATHMAN was heading home to his Locally Compact Hausdorff Space on his trusty homomorphism, HANS. Hiding under an open cover, his Arch Enemy SIN -l chose a lethal 2 > O from his arsenal of :real numbers. Heedless of the HeineBorel property, the villain projected his e: right through a f.inite subcover at our hero! Having previously predicted the probability of this event was negligible, MATHMAN was caught with his functions down. Frantically he grabbed his pocket APL terminal and by inspection sought a suitable o > 0 depending only on 2 to make the sequence of destructive elements to converge in a harmlessly distant ½ Hilbert Space! Will he find a suitable o? Will the computer stay up? Will SIN-If ever converge? slipped, MATHMAN f e 1 1 headfirst i n to t h e b a c kw a rd Ko l mog o ro v Equation where the one-step transition probab i 1 l ty matrix instantaneous iy bound our hero in Markov Chains! This sent chills up and down his triangular spline. But MATHMAN was not thwarted! 11 SIN- 1 put you up to this! 11 accused MATHMAN. From his utility belt, MATHMAN pulled out his Ax-lorn of choice and chopped his bounds l nto independent random variables. U s i n g re v e r s e Po I i s h not at ion MATHMAN escaped back to his Riemann Surface! Will MATHMAN slip again or will MATH MAN I s trusty homomorph i s m, HANS, rescue our hero from the Slippery Surface? After having iterated his way out of the Black Hole of RungeKutta, MATHMAN was imagining the complex numbers when he found the nasty eit and his alter-egos cos t and i sin t oscillating around him. 11 s1N- 1 ~ put you up to this!; 1 accused MATHMAN, Just then his trusty homomorphism, HANS, arrived with MATHMAN 1 s girlfriend LN who turned the tab l es (six place) on eit and got it. While LN threatened i t with DESTRUCT I ON MATHMAN attacked cost with his arc cos tables! Wi 11 i sin t escape? Wl i l U! realize it? Is this story imaginary or real? t ! NOW READ ON Having poll shed his Riemann Surface to such a degree that he TRIOOLOGY: TRIBOLOGY;, DEF I NED AS 1 THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF INTERACTII\IG SURFACES IN RELATIVE MOTION AND PRACTICES RELATED THERETO' " DEALS WITH ALL ASPECTS OF RUBBING, SLIDING AND ROLLING SURFACES. IT IS BASED ON A NUMBER OF DISCIPLINES., INCLUDING ENGINEER!~., PHYSICS; METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY, APPLICATION OF ITS PRINCIPLES LEADS NOT ONLY TO GREATER I, OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCTIVITY BUT TO CONSERVATION OF THE MATERIALS AND ENERGY, CONCER~JED AS IT IS WITH SUCH PHENf'JJlENA AS FR ICTI ON., WEAR AND LUBRICATION, IT IS NOW A SUBJECT IN ITS OWN RIGHT IN WHICH BRITAIN IS ACKNOWLEDGED AS A WORLD LEADER, THE FIRST EUROPEAN CONGRESS ON TRIBOLOGY WAS HELD IN LONDON IN SEPTEMBER, 1973, □ 59 �SOLUTIONS 60 �DIFFICULT CROSSWORD WITH INTERNATIONAL CONNOTATIONS ACROSS 1[8,6] The deep Pacific, near the Phill ipines 7 [7] Blood poisoning 8 [8] The highest large lake 9 [5] High U.N. officer (retired) 10 [3] Ancient Roman ballot box 11 [4] A sea in the U.S.S.R. 13 [4] A precious product of Lead (U.S.A.) 15 [41 Facts and figures 17 [4] 8 across is hardly a this this 19 [3] A reciprocating Eng 1 i sh river 20 [5] To seize without right 22 [8] The beard of Napoleon II I conforms to English weights and measures 23 [7] A desert train 25[8,6] A Russian island with a Portsmouth connection * DOWN 1[~3J] A Drakensberg peak 2 [7] Entangling 3 [5] A banana, not far from across 4 [3] This bit is small-time 5 [8] A Thai tractor 6[5,9] A cardiac patient may need this 7 [4] The source of the Blue Nile 11 [4] His apple is caused by the male thyroid cartilage 12 [4] 13 across is found here 14 [7] A characteristic of scientific activity 16 [7] A radiant inhabitant of the ocean 18 [4] The emerald isle 21 [5] A desert, scene of hostilities 24 [3] A bore FUNK & WAGNALL'S STANDARD DICTIONARY IS A USEFUL REFERENCE. 61 �QUICK ~ CROSSWORD ACROSS 2[5] The beginning 5[5] An arm joint 6[5] A Mediterranean country 7[5] A citrus fruit 9[3] An Antipodean bird 11[5] A city in 5 across 13[3] Regulation 15[9] Cessation 16[3] Bitumen 18[5] Mobile male seed 19[3] Long-wave light 21[5] The microwave equivalent of 13 down ( the in it i a 1 in it i a 1 is changed) 23[5] A leg bone 24[5] A borer 25[5] A negative credit 62 OOWN 1[5] 2[3] 3[3] 4[5] 8[9] 9[5] 10[5] 11[5] 12[5] 13[5] 14[5] 17[5] 20[5] 21[3] 22[3] A collection book A nocturnal predator A can metal Botanical growths Scientists and hobbyists Precise and accurate The higher state A city is a judge of beauty A teagrowing province A source of coherent 1 ight The whole bit A rose pest has his pa A downy water fowl Demented A rodent �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have n.ot enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. 11 CARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P78 5E1 �PLEASE LEA VE ME ABOUT FOR OTHER STUDENTS TO READ OUR COVER A science lecture theatre in a Russian university, almost indistinguishable from one in an older Canadian university. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 3 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 3, 1974. Articles on a variety of topics: University Science Squad - helped the University of Papua and New Guinea in Port Moresby and high schools improve science courses Archaeological dating in Australia around Lake Mungo Noise Pollution Birla Institute of Technology in Ranchi India Nuclear technology Thermodynamics Water pollution Interview wit Graham Chandler from University of Salford in England Organization and management of science in the USSR Research on Lakes Victoria and Chad by Lakehead University faculty, John S Mothersill, in Uganda and Nigeria Nouvelle technologie la supraconductivite (In French) Aristotle's ideas on motion Kenora environmental survey Le champ magnetique terrestre (In French) Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e543bd440bb499cf78075002d823ab9a.pdf 7c0861185060b44912e40f9a08b6cb14 PDF Text Text ~ . ~ g I LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW '· t VOLUME 1 A PUBLICATION OF THE ONLY NUMBER 2 FACULTY OF SCIENCE THAT TRULY UNDERSTANDS ONTARIO ~ -1111~'!: ..~ ~:1 - ., .;.~!t: ' . ~ ,:: .- iit ,. I '-'Y' ........... .,, .... ~ t...,... .... """' : , . . '1 rt a ,,.-❖ ·•. - • �OUR COVER Dr. John Ryder, an ornithologist of international repute has been studying the habits of the graceful ring-billed gull which frequents Thunder Bay and occasionally makes excursions onto the University campus. Two articles in this issue describe the observation post. In the cover photograph, gulls are to be seen incubating their eggs in the grassy areas while the guards on the rocky areas stay alert to the danger from predators and interference from "foreigners". �I.I Minister of State Ministre d'Etat Science and Technology Sciences et Technologie January 18, 1973. Dr. John Ha rt , Department of Physics, Lakehead University, Postal Station 11 P11 , Thunder Bay, Ontario. Dear Dr. Hart: You have asked me to furnish you with a letter which will indicate the importance of science and technology to young people. I do not know that there are aspects of science and technology which have relevance~ to the young. It seems to me that science and technology vitally affect the well-being of all Canadians and the future of Canadian society asa whole. Perhaps it is because of its effect on the Canadian society of the future that you have directed attention particularly to young people. They unquestionably will inherit the benefits of our stewardship of science and technology. They also will bear the burden of the negative aspects of that stewardship. More and more we are realizing that science and technology are, after all, two-edged swords. Every day the message becomes clearer that we must orient our scientific and technological efforts towards pre-determined goals. It is, of course, impossible to predict all the effects of a given innovation before it is invented. Yet we must hope that by directing our energies to the solution of present and foreseeable problems of importance to our society as a whole, we can help buil"d a better Canada and avoid the unfortunate side-effects that certain inventions may bring. . .. I 2 �- 2 Dr. John Hart, Lakehead University. January 18, 1973. At this stage the problem becomes one of choosing the most desirable directions. These choices will inevitably be dictated by the system of values of the society and of the individuals that make up the society. This is the most important point for the young to remember, namely, that the mere existence of scientific and technological knowledge places an obligation on them to learn, question and evaluate both that very knowledge and the value structures of past and present societies. Since no single person can have all the answers, everyone must contribute, or our society will surely fail in its fundamental obligation to provide a life worth living for its members and their descendants. I hope that this will meet at least part of what you had in mind. Yours sincerely, 1 't~ LI ►._, (Mme) Jeanne Sauve �a le of Contents 1 Editorial 2 Letters to the Editor 5 10 12 15 19 22 23 24 28 31 33 36 38 41 42 43 46 48 50 51 55 58 59 DO SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS EXPLAIN? THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN EVERYDAY THOUGHT SCIENCE AND APPLE PIE BASIC AIR NAVIGATION - A LOST ART? THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN OBSERVATION TOWER THE USE OF AN OBSERVATION TOWER BIOLOGY FROM THE STUDENTS' EYE VIEW THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF BIOLOGISTS THE CATALYTIC REMOVAL OF AIR POLLUTANTS - QUO VADIS? DETERGENTS AND OUR WATER THE CTS PROJECT ANO SOME EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS PRESENT AWARENESS HARWELL ATOMIC ENERGY RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT THE EFFECTIVE SHAPE OF A MOLECULE PHYSICS ANO BIOLOGY - ARE THEY SEPARABLE? FUTURE CAREERS HIGH SCHOOL "DROP OUTS"! SO YOU WANT TO BE A NURSE? A BRICK PROBLEM INTERVIEW WITH LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY STOREKEEPER: Bert Harding THIN SECTIONS HOW MAY TEACHERS KEEP IN TOUCH WITH EXPANSION OF THEIR SUBJECT? ARE TEACHERS BORN OR MADE? J. Douglas Rabb E.S. Bodzin Jim Wheeler Air Vice Marshal D.A.R. Bradshaw John R. Butler John Ryder Jean Pekkala and Frank Cartwright C. A. Elsey Robert A. Ross Gordon Francis T. R. Ide A Liberal Science Student Huw Dorkins E. Tyrral 1 Margaret Hawton Moe Ktytor Maurice G. Black Madeline Hookings J. H. M. Whitfield R. L. Bennett J. S. Griffith Casey A. Gehrels �continued ...... 60 61 62 64 67 69 73 75 THE ADVENTURES OF MATHMAN LAKEHEAD BECOMES CANADIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY TRANSLATION ON A COMPUTER BLACK AND WHITE HOLES A PACKING PROBLEM THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE GAME OF BRIDGE CROSSWORDS QUICK CROSSWORD L.U. Math Club Edward Mercy K. H. V. Booth J. S. Griffith J. H. M. Whitfield Larry Hansen �Car t A LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW incorporating LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS AZETTE (kar 'at) n. A sign ( A or A ) placed below a line to indicate where something should be inserted. Our CARET symbolizes the disastrous communications gap between High Schools and Universities: the bridge across it is missing and we will hope to span the void if only with a gossamer thread. Let us know what kind of articles you would like to see. Write an article yourself and send it in. Push your science teachers into sending us stories about their scientific and personal interests, or write about them yourselves (what an opportunity!) Above all, don't think that what you have to say will not be of any interest to us: let us be the judge of that. And, please don't assume that university scientists are somehow not quite human; we experience the same emotions of fear and hope, love and hate as the majority of human kind. The views expressed in CARET do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Editor, the Faculty or the University. CARET is published by the Faculty of Science of Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. P7B 5El Our Competition The four volume Encyclopaedia goes to Nancy Hathaway, 18-32 Arden Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba. R2M 2J9 She proposed the tit 1e SCIENTIFIC CHANNEL, which she says 11 incorporates the ideas of a bridge between high schools and science, and of tuning in to science". It's a good title, Nancy; but the competition board have decided to stick to the old title after all, so CARET is still CARET. To everybody who returned the forms, a big THANK YOU. we hope you will write to us again, and keep us informed. Communication has to be two-way, so LET US HEAR FROM YOU! Editorial The production of the first number of a magazine is an adventure: the initial impetus is bound to be strong and the problems of production are seen as a challenge. The real test of success is the second number which is produced on the basis of experience. Modifications in technique are introduced, and the Editor has a somewhat more perceptive view of his constituency. Many an editor has quailed before the task of producing a second edition, and national libraries are graveyards of one-issue journals. CARET has made it! We have learned some lessons, and have modified our ambitions in terms of the paper and print, but not our demand for good authorship. We are gratified that we have articles in cold storage far in excess of the quantity we can publish and we shall continue to approach likely authors for subjects of special interest. It is very rare for us to receive a refusal as this number amply demonstrates: in these pages are as wide a range of topics as one would meet anywhere, with authorships from laboratory technicians up to the Minister herself. In some ways, we seem to be too successful. Science teachers seem �to have developed the habit of taking CARET home for their families to read and 1 forgetting 1 to bring it back. Shame on you! We have visited schools throughout Northwestern Ontario, and it is a rare occurrence to find students who are even aware of its existence. At fifty cents, CARET is a bargain, and surely deserves the widest circulation? collections for the best essay discussing the reasons why our complicated life-style prevents us from being rational. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR Sir: DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY OFFERS VALUABLE PRIZE - CHAIRMAN TAKES AIM AT THE AUTOMOBILE Sir: The U.S. Government has introduced legislation aimed at reducing pollution of the atmosphere by auto exhausts. The major manufacturers of autos have responded by fixing control systems to engines which meet the stringent requirements laid down by law - but increase the consumption of gasoline by as much as thirty per cent. What a waste of a resource, the availability of which is becoming less and less. Following a recent editorial in 'Science', I bring to your attention a solution to the pollution problem. Since most autos in North America weigh about two tons and have 300 cubic inch engines, let the Government pass legislation to restrict the weight of autos to a maximum of one ton and the size of engines to 150 cubic inches. At once, pollution is halved and so is the need for gasoline. Since this simple solution is not possible, given our present economic and social system, I offer a handsome mineral specimen from the Departmental Yours etc. Edward Mercy, Chairman, The Geology Department, Lakehead University. I have read your first edition (January 1973) and must say that I enjoyed it very much. In your opening remarks you asked for suggestions for a title and suggestions of what kind of articles should be included in this magazine. Below are some suggestions, which I hope will be of interest to you. First of all,, I think '' Science Sum• 1974 mat1.on" or "Science};" would be a 11H3 good title for your ma.gazine, since it would seem to me that one of your chief aims is to give the scope of scientific learning and information. Also, because there are these interrelated yet distinctive areas of scientific study, it would seem feasible to have sections in the publication set aside for each of these areas - somewhat like you did for the Math section in your January edition but perhaps not as long. Another aim of your magazine would seem to be an interchange of scientific happenings in Northwestern Ontario as well as Lakehead University, thus why not contact difference science chairmen and/or teachers* (who in turn could contact students) in the High Schools of Northwestern Ontario and have them submit articles which could be published in a Northwestern Ontario section. This section should include short reports from each of the communities in Northwestern Ontario. They should be encouraged �to send in several reports and the best ones be printed. Also any reports that are too long for this section could then be placed in one of the specific subject areas (i.e. Math, Physics, Biology, etc.) or could be placed in the miscellaneous section, which would follow "Letters to the Editor as it does in your January edition. More reports on the different courses and comments such as "Liberal Science" articles would be appreciated. It might seem as if I'm suggesting that you publish a choppy magazine, but what I'm really trying to say is that Mathematicians would automatically turn to the Math section first and then read the other articles; Physicists would turn to Physics; Northwestern Ontario readers would turn to Northwestern Ontario and compare notes and programmes and get ideas, and in each case the rest of the magazine, especially if they found their section interesting and informative. This leads me to my last suggestion that the first page should not only include letters to the editor but also a list of contents and a statement as to whether this is a monthly, bimonthly, etc. magazine so that subscribers would know when to get their reports in and readers would know when to watch for the next edition of the magazine. I do hope I have not wasted your time with these few scribblings and if I can be of any assistance in any way feel free to contact me. The Physical Nature of the Earth is merely Geology la6 which is the first-year course for specialist students who wish to continue in the field of geology". May I correct this statement? Geology la6, and therefore LS1O4, is one of the few science courses which is open to any student who has the pre-requisite, "A grade 13 Science Subject". In this year's class, there are students from each of the five science majors, from both the Liberal Science and General Science programmes, as well as students from the Departments of Geography, Economics, Psychology and Sociology. It is not a course for the specialist student and certainly is not a course 'geared' towards the Liberal Science student. If it is 'geared' to anyone it is to the intelligent student. Yours etc. Edward Mercy, Chairman, The Geology Department, Lakehead University. Sir: Congratulations on an excellent Volume 1! Our students, teachers and myself found the articles most interesting. Find enclosed a recent experiment that my Environmental Chemistry class conducted this past two weeks. The students enjoyed the experiment, and are presently inviting other students in the school to bring their own detergents from home for analysis. Gordon Francis wrote up a small report for our school newspaper, which is a bi-monthly, maybe you can use it. Looking forward to your next edition. Yours etc. Sheila Flesher, 333 Ogden Street, Thunder Bay F, Ontario. *We did! - Ed. Yours etc. Sir: Bob Aitken, Lakewood Secondary School, Kenora, Ontario. On page 22 of the last issue there appears the statement that "LS1O4 3 �often difficult to learn and even more difficult to apply to em solving. It is true that in sity, you will discover that some of the things you were taught at lower levels were crap! That's 1 part of the excitement of science. Sir: I have just read a copy of your first issue of CARET. You have developed a very worthwhile publication which I suspect will go a long way toward bridging the university - high school gap that seems to exist everywhere. This will be specially true if you can encourage high school teachers to contribute. would you please be so kind as to place me on your mailing list. I am taking the liberty of sending you a copy of our publication, Physics Teaching Today, which is making some progress in increasing communication between the university and the high schools. Dear Professor: I'm very keen on chemistry, and get good marks. Sometimes I do things in the laboratory which I'm not supIXJSed to do, and make an awful stink. I think I'm being original, but my teacher is threatening to ban me from the lab. Why can't I be left alone? - w.J. Yours etc. Dr. Richard Reis, Assistant Professor, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Memorial University of Newfoundland - St. John's. Dear W.J. Burning flesh smells terrible. Write to: PROFESSOR PSYMPATHI, c/o THE DEAN OF SCIENCE, LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY, THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO. Thank you, Dr. Reis. Physics Teaching Today is a lively publication - where did you get that centrefold Playmate? - Ed. P7B 5E ■ Say first, of God above, or man below, What can we reason, but from what we know, Of man, what see we but his station here, From which to reason, or to which refer, Through worlds unnumbered though God be known, 1 Tis ours to trace him only in our own. can rough vast immensi He, who pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one universe, Observe how system into system runs, What other planets circle other suns, What varied being peoples every star, May tell why Heaven has made us as we are. PROFESSOR PSYMPATHI ADVISES Dear Professor: My teacher says science is all facts, but I try to argue with him that it's no good learning them because they're all crap and will be changed by the time I get out of school, and then he gets mad, and throws me out of the class. Why should I learn all this stuff? - G.K. Dear G.K. Some parts of science are so well established that they can rightly be ca 11 ed facts These facts a re II II 11 • II . 4 �DO SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS EXPLAIN? By J. Douglas Rabb THE SCIENTIST IS NOT A PASSIVE is, ~hose sciences such as physics, chemistry, geology and biology, in which observation plays an important role. 1 Although we all know, in some sense, what observation is it is .important to realize that there ' are some striking differences between scientific observation and our ordinary sightings and noticings. Scientific observation is, generally speaking, undertaken in order to put some tentative hypothesis to the test. The scientist is then, not merely a passive observer;' rather he sets out deliberately to make certain observations for a particular purpose. As Charles Darwin once put it "AU observation must be for or against some view if it is to be of any serviae." 2 One of the most important aspects of scientific observation is the demand for public verifiability or objectivity. That is, any particular scientific observation must be capable of repetition by~ any qualified observer. As the contemporary philospher of science, Max Black puts it: OBSERVER Do scientific explanations explain? I have suggested to the author of this paper, whom I know quite we 11 - he being myse 1f, that this question is a rather silly one. Surely it is obvious that scientific explanations explain. Indeed that is why we call them 'explanations'. The author, whose opinion I greatly respect, has replied that in asking this question he was, in fact, wondering whether scientific explanations actually increase our knowledge and understanding of the world. But surely this too is a rather silly question. Has not the advance of scientific knowledge over the past few decades been one of the most dramatic accomplishments of mankind? Is not the purpose of scientific inquiry to unravel the mysteries of the universe? This certainly seems to be the most common belief concerning what science is up to. But if one is bold enough to ask whether or not this prevailing opinion is correct, and the author of this paper assures me that he is then .1t seems that we are back to the ' question with which we began - i.e., Do scientific explanations explain? But how does one go about answering this sort of question, as opposed to telling other people not to ask it? First, it will be necessary to establish what exactly a scientific explanation is -what sort of thing we are doing when we are offering this kind of explanation. Only after this is accomplished can we even begin to ask whether or not scientific explanations increase our understanding of the wor 1d. It should be noted that I am primarily concerned with what may be called the empirical sciences - that " .... the report of the individual scientist gets no more credit than it can win through the critical repetition of the observations by other scientists ... The requirement for public verification ... is the best instrument we have against personal bias and prejudice. u 3 However, this demand for public verifiability has exerted a most interesting influence on the sort of observations scientists are willing to admit. Since the observations must be repeatable they are limited to those about which no dispute could, in practice, arise. Since sight is the most accurate of our senses, the observations are usually 1 imited to visual ones. And as Max Black correct5 �ly points out in a most illuminating passage: unconscious in general, theoretical constructs. Theories of this type can only be confirmed indirectly, since we cannot observe the entities or properties to which they refer. By indirect confirmation, I mean the following: we can deduce that if the theory were correct then a certain set of observation statements would then be true. If the observation statements turn out to be true then the theory is confirmed, or at least on the way to being confirmed. But if some or all of the observation statements which would be true if the theory were correct, in fact, turn out to be false then the theory is incorrect and must be discarded or at least amended. In order to facilitate discussion of this argument it is helpful to state it in rather more formal terms. If we let the statements expressing the theory or explanation be represented by the statement-variable 'p 1 and the observation statements by 1 q 1 then the important part of the above argument can be stated very simply as follows: if p then q,but q is false, therefore pis false. It has been argued by some that this deceptively simple argument form which logicians honour with the Latin name modus tollens 5 is, in fact, at the very basis of the validity of the empirical sciences. 6 If this view is correct, and I am inclined to believe that some such view must be correct, then two important consequences follow. The first is that the scientist is constantly searching for ways of falsifying currently held theories. Rom Harre, a philospher of science at Oxford, summarizes this kind of account of scientific investigation as fo 11 ows: "What needs to be seen tends to be increasingly narrowed down to the position of a pointer on a numbered scale .... The situation to be observed is defined in the light of increasin~ly more complex theorry, and what ~s recorded becomes increasingly something selected, abstracted, or calculated from the direct observation. The ,,fe it warmth" of an object is rep laced in turn by the readings of a mercurry thermometer, a "caleulated value" that is "corrected for errors" . . . It is for this reason that reports of scientific investigation become increasingly hard for the layman to follow. It is not merely that the scientist has come gradually to discover unusual and hidden phenomena; the cause of the obscurity is still more to be found in the transformations imposed on common-sense concepts by the criterion of pub Zic veri fiabi Zi ty. 114 What Black is here drawing our attention to is the increasing mathematization of the observation statements used by scientists. In fact, it is partially for this reason that mathematics is popularly regarded as the tool of the sciences. I will, however, argue shortly that mathematics has a much more fundamental role to play in the empirical sciences. THE ACID TEST Thus far I have been discussing only scientific observation. Scientific explanation, however, involves much more than mere observation statements. In fact what is observed is often •explained' in terms of what is, in principle, unobservable. A scientific theory may, for example, make reference to such unobservables as electrons, genes, the " ... we begin with certain vaguely formulated ideas about the way things are and how the world works 3 giving us a certain horizon of expectations about what will happen in given 6 �circumstances. This we make more precise by constant refinement as we find reasons for rejecting those parts of our vague view of the world which do not fit in with our further experience ... laws of nature are always provisional, their temporary acceptance meaning that they have not yet provided any grounds for their own rejection. " 7 The second consequence of this view of scientific explanation is that the validity of the empirical sciences is ultimately dependent upon pure mathematics. The mathematician and philosopher, Bertrand Russel1, in his famous essay on 1 Mathematics and the Metaphysicians' offers the following definition of pure mathematics: "Pure mathematics consists entirely of assertions to the effect that~ if such and such a proposition is true of anything, then such and such another proposition is true of that thing. It is essential not to discuss whether the first proposition is really true, and not to mention what the anything is, of which it is supposed to be true. Both these points would belong to applied mathematics. We start, in pure mathematics, from certain rules of inference, by which we can infer that if one proposition is true, then so is some other proposition ... Thus mathematics may be defined as the subject in which we never know what we are talking about, nor whether what we are saying is true. " 8 Since I am suggesting that the validity of scientific explanation depends upon the kind of logico-mathematical arguments Russell is discussing here, it follows that mathematics is not merely the tool of the empirical sciences, but is rather at the very basis of their reliability. NECESSITY FOR COMPETING HYPOTHESES But is my suggestion correct? Is scientific explanation based on the modus tollens argument mentioned above? Is science the constant search for observations which will falsify its hypotheses and theories? Of course, the position as I have stated it is grossly oversimplified. The scientist, quite rightly, would not allow one observation, or set of observations, to falsify a given theory. He must first have a competing hypothesis from which the observation made can be deduced (explained?). Further in referring to the statementform 'if p then q' I have been talking as if 1 q 1 stands for observation statements and premiss-set 1 p 1 stands only for statements making up scientific theories. However, something must also be said about law-like statements and statements describing the antecedent conditions of the phenomena described by 1 q 1 • The account of scientific explanation that I am suggesting would not be complete and could not be defended unless sc:rnething was said about all the above. But this, the reader will be relieved to see, is completely beyond the scope of this short paper. As the French philosopher, Voltaire, said somewhere "The surest way to be a bore is to leave nothing.unsaid." Actually what Voltaire said was "Le secret d'@tre ennuyeux c'est de tout dire" but I prefer the rather l i bera 1 English translation. As I said above I cannot offer conclusive proof that my description of the logic of scientific explanation is correct. I will, however, offer some evidence to show that I am, at least, on the right track. I wi 11 not appeal, as I might, to the actual practices of the older established sciences such as physics and chemistry. It will, I think, be more revealing to �look at what an exponent of a relatively young science has to say about what he is up to. This will be revealing because a person in this position is still, in effect, trying to win acceptance of his discipline as a genuine field of scientific inquiry. The science of Theoretical Linguistics, compared to say Physics, is still in its infancy - if indeed it has passed the fetal stage. One of its best known practitioners, Noam Chomsky, is most concerned that his linguistic theories be accepted as bona fide scientific theories. In order to gain this acceptance, Chomsky argues, rather convincingly, that his principle of universal grammar, his deep structure of all languages, is in fact " ... an empirical hypothesis, falsifiable by factual evidence". 9 THE LIMITATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION I have presented a brief sketch of what I think a scientific explanation is and I have offered some support for this position. I now wish to draw attention to what I regard as two important shortcomings of scientific explanation. The first is, in fact, a problem with the nature of scientific observation. As I have noted, the scientist must be objective - his observations must be limited to those which can be repeated by any trained observer. I suggest, however, that when the scientist turns to the study of himself, or of man per se, as opposed to some aspect of man such as his body, this demand for objectivity hinders rather than aids the investigation. For when the investigator or the observer becomes the investigated or the observed, he tends to lose his essential characteristic - his subjectivity, the fact that he is, or can be, an observer. The result of this sort of exercise is usually some kind of behaviouristic psychology where the subject becomes a mere object. In fact what usually results is the odd sort of schizophrenia illustrated by the opening passages of this paper, in which I did not go so far as to treat myself as an 8 object but merely as another subject. In consulting the author of this paper I find that he agrees with me, at least on this point. Would it be logically possible for him to disagree with me on any point? 10 My second worry about scientific explanation is a rather more genera one. We normally think of explanation as the reduction of the unfamiliar to the familiar. That is, the explanation offered has to be more familiar than that which we set out to explain. But scientific explanation seems to do the very opposite. It takes some quite ordinary familiar event and 1 exp1ains 1 it in terms of unobservable theoretical constructs. Perhaps what my worry comes to is simply a request that the explanation offered, itself be ~xplained. However, I think that most practicing scientists would give a rather pragmatic answer to this request saying, in effect, that if we require that everything be explained, we will, in fact, explain nothing. Nevertheless, I for one cannot seem to shake the belief that no explanation can be ultimately satisfactory if it leaves something unexplained. In conclusion, then, I am suggesting that scientific explanation does not represent the condition of optimum development or final goal of our understanding and knowledge of the physical universe. However, let us not forget, it does represent the beginning. FOOTNOTES 1I will, however, also say something in passing, however misl about the formal sciences, s mathematics and logic. 2 As quoted in Max Black, Critical �Thinking, (New York, 1955), p. 357. 3 Ibid., p. 360. 4 Ibid., p. 361. FACT AND HYPOTHESIS - Irving Marmer Copi The job of science, we all know, is to discover facts; but a haphazard collection of facts cannot be said to constitute a science. To be sure, some parts of science may focus on this or that particular fact. A geographer, for example, may be interested in describing the exact confiruration of a particular coastline, or a geologist in the precise nature of rock strata in a particular locality. But in the more advanced sciences, bare descriptive knowledge of this or that particular fact is of little importance. The scientist is eager to search out more general truths, of which particular facts are instances and for which they constitute evidence. Isolated particular facts may be known - in a sense by direct observation. That a particular released object falls, that this ball moves more slowly down an inclined plane than it did when dropped directly downwards, that the tides ebb and flow, all these are matters of fact open to direct inspection. But the scientist seeks more than a mere record of such phenomena; he strives to understand them. To this end he seeks to fonnulate general laws which state the patterns of all such occurrences and the systematic relationships between them. The scientist is engaged in a search for the natural laws according to which all particular events occur aoo the fundamental principles which underlie them. Since the point of the argument is to deny the truth of 1 p 1 it is called modus tollens from the Latin 1 tollere 1 meaning to deny. ~or a discussion, see I.M. Copi, Introduct~on to Logic, (New York, 1972), pp. 234 f. 6 Se~, for example, Karl R. Popper, The Log~c of Scientific Discovery, (London, 1968); and Conjectures and Refutations; 5 The GrOlJth of Scientific KnOlJledge, (London, 1963). 7 R. Harre, An Introduction to the Logic of the Sciences, (London, 1965), p. 133. 8 Bertrand Russell, Mysticism and Logic (London, 1963), p. 59. ' 9 Noam Chomsky, Problems of KnOlJledge and Freedom, (New York, 1971), p. 23. 1 °For an account of some other paradoxes that can result from applying scientific explanation to human behaviour see: C.S. Rip 1ey, "Why Determinism Cannot Be True Dialogue, Vol. XI, March, 1972, pp. 59-68. 11 _Dr. Rabb is an assistant professor of Ph~lo~ophy here at Lakehead University. Born ~n Kenora, he studied philosophy at Carleton University (Ottawa), Queen's Unive~sity (Kingston) and.the University of Ed~nburgh. He has publ~shed articles and ~eviews on a wide variety of philo~oph~cal_concepts and topics including ~mag~nat~on, memory, belief, the self, materialist theories of mind, our knowledge of material objects and nineteenth century German Idealism. He is a member of the Canadian Philosophical Association, the Mind Association and the Aristotelian Society. He is admired and liked by his colleagues in the University who appreciate his even-tempered disposition. He has a profound knowledge of philosophy and is always ready to speak on the subject with great fluency. Irving Mormer Copi [ 1917 - ] ij ~~ was educated at University of Michigan where he too is doctorole in 1948. • • Taught for one year at Illinois· returned to Michig.51n. Has written on logjc, scientific methoa and the philosophy ot language. 9 �THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN EVERYDAY THOUG By E. S . Bodz in CURIOSITY AND CRITICISM Despite the ever-widening gulf between scientists and non-scientists, it is sti11 true, as William James once observed, that the only important intellectual difference between the habitual drunk and the compulsive scholar is the point at which they stop asking questions. The curiosity of the child can become more intense with time, or it can be channeled into resignation and passive acceptance. When the young child defiantly asks why he should not climb onto the back of a chair, he may painfully learn something about centers of gravity or he may meet with an equally painful lesson about authority; and while either of these lessons might discourage him or whet his curiosity all the more, he has at least posed a question that had to be asked. As we grow, thousands of similar questions beg for answers, even if we do not devote much time to formal study. Our reluctance to continue to ask certain kinds of questions - the kinds that specialists ·alone can cope with - should surely not deter us from asking questions altogether. And if we cannot all be professiona1 scientists, so long as we learn about life generally we can confront its lessons with the same critical attitude that the scientist brings to bear upon his. A number of striking parallels can be drawn between the critical method of the scholar and that of any thinking person. For example, the child mentioned above, whose chair has tipped over, will learn no more initially than to avoid climbing on that chair in that way. His experience at first wi11 tell him nothing about sofas or about counterbalances. Since his knowledge is of 1 i mi ted scope, it is of 1 i mi ted usefulness as well. Eventually, he will be able to do far more with the knowledge that he can climb anywhere on any chair if a heavy enough weight holds the seat down. This information can be tested and confirmed in a variety of situations. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS MAY ~E INVALID If we each had to go through this kind of process for all our conclusions, we would know far less than we do. Luckily, we come to depend on the experience of our predecessors and to accept their findings as our own. In other wo.rds, the individual accommodates his own knowledge to a scientific tradition much larger than himself. He realizes that if humanity had never taken the liberty of assuming it was right until all risk of error was past, mankind would sti11 be back in the stone age. As a group, men have always acted as if certain bits of knowledge were true, and some of them actually have been. So the individual for his part assumes that the general assumptions of the past are correct. Of course, they are not. Much in the same way as an individual might reflect upon the lessons of his youth, each age perceives the formulations of the past to be at best a collection of over-simp1ifications, partial truths, and useful errors. Knowledge is always being refined and made more precise, even radica11y·a1tered on occasion. Recently, for example, cu1tura1 historians have replaced the vague traditional term 11 romanticism 11 with 11organ i ci sm 11 , which describes a process and a method generally believed in and used during the ear y years of the.nineteenth century. The new concept provides a more precise, orderly way of uniting such diverse figures as Herder, Keats, Rousseau and Emerson. Understanding the implications of this paradox - that we must accept the past if we are to grow as indi10 �viduals, but that we must constantly re-examine traditional conclusions or stagnate as l!omo sapiens - is the underlying basis of a rational, critical view of life. As thinkers we walk a line; sometimes we fall over on the side of certitude, and sometimes on the side of skepticism. As we have seen, accepting too much rif the past is just as likely to draw us into error as is rejecting too much. To develop a critical perspective is to realize this, and to avoid both errors. CONSTANT RE-VERIFICATION IS irresponsible of us simply to admit 1ife 1 s complexity and to leave the examination of 1ife to professional thinkers. Dr. Bodzin has never believed in the traditional distinctions among academic disciplines, nor in the isolation of academic life from life as a whole. His career has seen him move from rabbinical training to physical education to philosophy~ the field in which he ultimately received his undergraduate degree. As a graduate student in English, he wrote a doctoral dissertation treating an aspect of American cultural history, in which he came close to avoiding any mention of literature. Currently Assistant Professor of English at Lakehead University, he considers improved judgment and the development of critical method to be more worthwhile goals for his students than the acquisition of any particular subject matter. Students hold him in the highest esteem: he is demanding and critical. Any~ne who has taken one of his courses knows that he gives superb academic value for money. NECESSARY As the above example from cu1tura1 history suggests, the methods of social science can be as crucial to everyday thought as those of the exact sciences. We do well to learn from exact science not to accept one demonstration of a discovered hypothesis, but to constantly re-verify it in the light of subsequent discovery; similarly, once we interpret and evaluate our own experience, we should be willing, like social science, to modify that vision whenever necessary. It is a truism of our time that this is a relatively open-minded age - we tolerate and do not dogmatize. But in developing habits of thought, especially in regard to interpretation and evaluation, most of us accept some unyielding attitudes. We do not tolerate intolerance, for example. Thus, even openmindedness has its 1imits. Few of us will wish to define those 1 imits because not everybody is James 1 s compulsive scholar. But whatever the scope of our investigations, our questions arise because understanding some of our experience is important to us. Science in its broadest sense that is, all knowledge - has become a complex and highly demanding pursuit. Only a part of it is available to the layman who has not given over his life to study and discipline. We all stop asking questions at some point; but life is too important for us to stop too soon. It would be DEFINITION OF DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE - John Stu a rt Mi 11 It has . . . been held by some writers that all ratiocination rests in the last resort on a reductio ad absurdum , since the way to enforce . assent to it, in case of obscurity, would be to show that if the conclusion be denied we must deny some one at least of the premises, which, as they are all supposed true, would be a contradiction. And, in accordance with this, many have thought that the peculiar nature of the e~idence_of ratiocination consisted 1n the impossibility of admitting the premises and rejecting the conclusion without a contradiction in terms. 11 �SCIENCE and APPLE PIE By Jim Wheeler Of Science, Webster says: "Science - a branch of knowledge especially one concerned with establishing and systematizing facts, principles and methods .... Let's look at the reactions of the one person we all know -ME, for it's the ME's who graduate from high school year after year. It's the ME's who stand on the threshold of decision. Well, it sure smells good out there! There's the smell of freedom, new cars, a full time job, marriage, and maybe even University. What to do? What to do? My own exit from high school I must admit came as a pleasant shock to me. My physics marks prompted.the guidance department to suggest I should pursue a career in electronics, and so I did to everyone's satisfaction, including my own. I must say, however, I was guided to a decision with blinkers on: as for those who supplied the blinkers and did the guiding, I thank God you were right in my case, for there must be some who still wonder: 11Why am I doing this? How did I get hepe? 11 For the rest of this article, I 1 m going to give you the highlights of seventeen years as seen from the inside looking out. My taste of the pie. My first job was with DeHavilland aircraft in a division manufacturing electrical power supplies. I counted meters and other electrical equipment and kept them ready for use (by someone else!). 11 Everyone starts at the bottom 11 I'd been told so many times that it came as no surprise, and I didn 1 t resent any of my "bottom jobs 11 as I recall. Four years later I was pretty well dry behind the ears and had taken part in the flight test of DeHavilland 1 s new aircraft the Caribou. Its letters were CF-KTK-x'- and I 1 11 tell you the first day it flew I was the proudest emp oyee they had. My contribution was only some minor instrumentation, but you would have thought I 1 d designed half the aircraft myself: I suppose every employee watching that first flight must have been just as proud. looking back over those first few years, I must say I was very happy with Science, because had been allowed to put the fundamentals I 11 Sounds like a filing clerk working in the middle of the Sahara Desert It's like describing an egg as a spheroid - ridiculous - if you are hungry! The best way by far to describe science, if you want any nourishment out of it, is from the inside out with words like delicious, aZZ- consuming, unexpected, innovative. What's delicious about science? It's the apple pie fresh. out of the oven. Just by looking a( it your mouth begins to water ... "just a small taste 11 , you say ... but there is no such thing for us apple pie 1overs. "What piece to cut?" - 11 What shape?" - 11 What size?" These are questions that only the eater can answer. If you can 1 t ask: "How does it taste?" and get a reasonable answer, then take a small slice to sample yourself - certainly don't leave it untouched, for you may find it indescribably delicious. How do you sample the apple pie and give an honest opinion? Well, let's list some of the do 1 s and don't's. Perhaps the most important one is: Do approach it with an open mind and the honest desire to render a just decision no matter what it is. Do savour the flavour of each mouth· ful accumulating your impressions until the plate is clean, then render your decision. Don 1 t gulp it down too quickly. You may end up choking. Don't precede the taste by eating a strong onion ... the true flavour will never get through. Don't take such a small piece that the taste is too fleeting to decide. 12 �thing literally exploded (due to a faulty component we eventually found out), but for the next hour I' 11 bet there were some misgivings about having hired me. Every time something similar to that incident happens and, believe me, things do go wrong in laboratories from time to time, I 1 d have sold my slice of Science for a nickle and given change to boot. These incidents are, thank God, few and far between but they nevertheless occur, so for those people starting out thinking that Science is a hard factual life equipment is made and labs are staffed by people like you and I and that's what makes laboratory life sweet and sour, exciting and depressing. My stay at United was one of the most taxing and yet pleasurable periods in my workcareer. Here I was, with not only my education to draw on, but also several years of related experience, and I was being asked to use every bit of it. I went from design job to design job usually suggesting or developing instruments that made the test engineer 1 s job easier. The test engineers ran the jet engines in large test areas called 11 t es t ce 11 s 1 1 and i t was the i r job to test a new seal, or a new fuel system or a new propeller or thousands of other things that go into a modern aircraft engine. It was my job to make sure the answers they got were correct. Exciting, you had better believe it! Imagine yourself involved as I was with up to ten such tests all going on at the same time. By this stage we were using two aircraft as test vehicles, one a helicopter on 11 tie-down 11 tests at the plant and the other a Beech 18 aircraft flying out of an airport over 35 miles away. There were about eighteen of us by this time a11 doing the same general job but each specializing in one aspect or another. I must have made a favourable impression as things progressed because I became the supervisor of this group and asyou can again guess even more involved in not only my own work, but that of everyone else. had learned in school into practice to the profit of both my employer and se 1f. About this time you could say I 1 d eaten my first slice of pie and had savoured every mouthful. There were outside influences by this time that prompted me to apply to United Aircraft in Montreal for the position of Instrumentation Designer. United Aircraft were developing a new turbine engine and were putting together an experimental engineering department. I should tell you how I almost missed this one completely. I had written to the company in Longueui 1, just outside of Montreal, and by return mail was told an interviewer by the name of Thompson would be at the Royal York and would be expecting me at 2:00 p.m. Shining, clean and nervous, I appeared .... no Thompson, they never heard of him. Was I ever disappointed! I returned home, down in the dumps and finally decided to phone the company direct, and ask them why they were so insensitive that they could change their mind about the interview and not even tell me. Well - it appeared they sent a last minute replacement when Thompson caught the flu and the new interviewer couldn't get in touch with me. As a result I rushed back to the hotel and was interviewed as he packed, paid his bill, and caught a plane for Montreal .... I got the job and within two weeks was working near Montreal. Every new employee likes to make a good impression on his boss during his first few weeks, and I was no exception. One day during the first week, a shiny new calibration furnace and control system was delivered and because I was experienced with this type of equipment I was asked to put it into operation and set up a series of procedures for its use by less technical personnel. All went well the first day, but the second day the 13 �one of a group of three on developing and f1 ight testing C.P. I. 1 s "Crash Position lndicators 11 • My job was still trying to measure things, and I spent almost as much time flying as I did on the ground. You think this sounds exciting, I'll bet -well, I get air sick -not sick sick, just woozy which is almost worse, and the hardest thing to do is finish the job when your stomach is bent on taking over your mind. There were exciting moments here and the team atmosphere was perhaps the strongest I had ever been in. I had by now eaten enough of the pie to be a connoisseur of sorts and while this pie was definitely right for me there were slices that I have a preference for. After I had been with the Council only one and a half years, a friend with whom I had gone through high school came to Ottawa and offered me a job at Lakehead University and to add to the offer I would also be allowed to continue my education to any degree I wanted at no expense to myself. Well, needless to say, I came, perhaps more because it was 11 home 11 than anything else, but anyway I did come. Since then I have obtained my degree, and still, I hope performed in a worthwhile fashion for my employer. Is this the end of my wandering? Maybe - but it is only another slice of my pie, and I 1 m still looking forward to my next bite! learned several very important truths about life in this job - one is make sure there is always a clear I line of communications be-tween people because isolated people do not pull their fair share of the load. The other one is when handing out work after you select the people you want to do the job .... let them do it! Hold regular meetings to discuss progress by all means but don 1 t stop progress just because it doesn't follow your exact line of thought. This last one is the one most often forgotten. We l 1 , I co u 1d t e 11 a 11 sort s of stories about building new test facilities, hiring new personnel, forming the flight test group, and the two days of pre-flight medical tests everyone went through in Toronto not forgetting the time the test engine exploded - this all served to flavour the work and mold the people into an exciting happy team and I was, I can tel1 you, a very proud member. I 1 d eaten another large slice of the pie and was ready for more. About this time I moved to Kingston, Ontario to take up a similar position with a small company developing a free piston engine. It was while we were in Kingston my family started school, we built our first house, and I sold the patent rights to an instrument I had designed. My stay in Kingston was less hectic than Montreal and while I stayed there almost five years my work took on a routine colour that I rather enjoyed. We spent weekends on picnics, planting lawns and gardens, swimming, fishing, tobogganing and skating. I started to have a new approach to work that allowed me more free time for other things. I cou 1d st i 11 dive in and get completely immersed but now could also climb out and dry off pretty quickly. In the late 1960 1 s I moved once again, this time to the flight research section of the National Research Council in Ottawa, so I was once again back with airplanes. This time I worked as Jim Wheeler is a Master in the Retraining and Technology Divisions of Confederation College. His career has Zed him through Canada's Missile and Aircraft Industries where his enthusiasm for Science has grown with each new assignment. His educational experience includes a diploma from Ryerson PolytechnicaZ Institute as well as a BSc from Lakehead University. His non-paying hobbies include amateur radio (VE3EEG) and boating which he enjoys with his three daughters and three sons. 14 �BASIC AIR NAVIGATION A LOS ? By Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw PEOPLE GET LOST BECAUSE THEY WILL NOT NAVIGATE NAVIGATIONAL AIDS The basic equipment (which must be kept in serviceable condition) is: a) Up-to-date maps of the area of flight b) Compass: properly swung a) Altimeter d) Air Speed Indicator e) Turn and Bank Indicator f) Ruler, Protractor and Dividers g) Several Pencils h) Accurate Watch or Clock. Before the days of Marco Polo, caravans used to cross the deserts of Afghanistan and Mongolia, arriving at their camping sites and destination with remarkable accuracy. How? By using an amazing Chinese magic needle which was on a leaf floating in a bowl of water. It always pointed in one direction if the bowl was kept perfectly still. It was the earliest magnetic compass. The famous early navigators of Portugal who explored the African coast could find their latitude using a crude forerunner of a sextant called an Astrolabe invented originally by the Greeks. The sense of the foregoing is that men, for centuries, travelled great distances over unexplored land and seas using the crudest of simple instruments and highly developed instincts for conditions of sea, wind and weather. What is most important is that they got to their destination and returned!! Why then in this day of highly refined electronic and other navigating devices, which are so numerous that the buyer has to decide which combination he needs, do modern pilots get lost in rather large numbers? Because they get lost, air and ground searches for downed aircraft cost the taxpayer millions of dollars annually. The reasons are numerous, such as flying in an area with few or no electronic aids to navigation, onboard navigating equipment not working properly, flying in weather too severe for the pilot's capability to list but a very few. Nevertheless I contend that most pilots flying over unpopulated areas, such as our northern bush country, get lost because of failure to use good basic air navigation methods. Common additional 11 luxury 11 items: a) Calculator b) Directional Gyro a) Artificial Horizon d) Sextant and Appropriate Star Tables e) Two-Way Radio. With the above, many of the early pilots have circumnavigated the earth blazing trails which are now established airline routes. HOW DISASTERS OCCUR Not too long ago I was in a small plane taking off from one northern point for another several hundred miles away. After a while, the pilot turned to me and said, "What time did we Zeave?" This startled me and I asked him for the map. There was some scrambling around and after several minutes he handed me a map of the area -which was blank - that is, there was no flight 1 ine or other information pertaining to our flight on it! We didn't get lost, but that is precisely how these disasters commence. Lack of knowledge of the art of basic air navigation, lack of proper pre-flight preparation, lack of proper in-flight navigation, poor airmanship and laziness are the root causes of lost aircraft. Familiarity breeds contempt and pilots who fly to and fro, back and over the same route tend to relax their vigilance until one day they get t weather - out of sight of the ground; unknown winds push them off course. Eventually, they may see the ground again, it is unfamiliar to them, 15 �are lost, fuel runs out HOW !!QI ........... I each leg of your flight, flying time for each leg in hours and minutes, fuel consumption for each leg of flight, including leg to alternate destination, and record this data on a suitable card for in-flight reference. If winds are not available, then the procedure to be used will be referred to later; see InF1i g ht , i t em {8) . (9) Calculate fuel required for flight to destination, plus fuel to alternate, plus fuel for holding pattern at destination as laid down in Air Regulations. (It is different for piston and jet aircraft.) (10) File flight information as soon as possible with nearest aviation authority, plus time of departure. (11) Ensure compass is serviceable and properly swung. (12) Set clock or watch accurately. (13) Check availability of maps (in proper sequence), calculator, ruler, protractor and pencils. (14) Check functioning of radio and note frequencies to be used enroute. TO GET LOST What should a pilot, particularly one flying small aircraft over 11 bush 11 type country or over new routes, do to minimize his chances of getting lost and maximize his chances of arriving safely and on time at his destination after an enjoyable flight? The following is an effective pattern of procedure which may be considered basic. It will take longer to write it out than to do it. Pre-Flight: (1) Using up-to-date aeronautical maps, draw a line (called the track) from the point of departure to destination or first stopping point or to each turning point. (2) From departure point, draw straight lines at 5° and 10° angles each side of your track. Extend these lines for at least 50 miles. Draw them on the destination side of your departure point. (3) At destination, repeat procedure with 5° and 10° lines drawn on the departure side of destination point. (4) Using dividers, mark track in 10 or 20 nautical mile intervals. (5) Measure distance to be flown in nautical miles. (6) Study route and 20 miles either side of track for prominent features, such as lakes, high hills, prominent river courses, etc., etc., and circle or indicate on map those features you plan to look for or will recognize at a glance. (7) If available, obtain latest weather forecast for your route area, destination and alternate. If avai 1able, obtain forecast winds for route at the altitudes you plan to fly plus winds from surface to at least 5000 feet above your planned flight altitude. (8) Using above data, carefully calculate your compass headings for In-Flight: (1) After take-off, circle and set course over airport or from predetermined start point. (2) Set clock or note time over airport or start point. (3) Hold predetermined compass headings and read map carefully. After 5 or 10 minutes, mark exact position on map. This will indicate drift off course. Take clock reading. (4) Refer to your 5° and 10° lines and you can estimate quite accurately the number of degrees you are off course. (5) Alter heading towards your track the same number of degrees and you will make good a line parallel to your track. (6) If you alter course towards your track, double the number of degrees and for the same amount of time taken to your first map check you will arrive back on your track. (7) Now alter course back towards your original heading by the same number of degrees you were off course at first map 16 �check point. You will now hold very close to your track. (8) After regaining your track, take ti me between marked i nte rva 1s. (Read the map continuously.) Using your ca1cu1ator, find the ground speed of aircraft. Continuing to use calculator or.just ~lain pencil, paper and simple ar1thmet1c, recalculate estimated time of arrival at destination or turning points. [With practice, this can all be done in your head.and very quickly, too. Using calculator and this data ' new wind direction and wind speed can be determined to recalculate new headings, if you wish to be more professional.] (9) Continue to repeat sequences (4) to (8), inclusive, for the rest of the flight as flight situation warrants. (10) If weather drops toward the minimum for your licensed capability or type of aircraft, either return to departure point or look for nearest suitable landing area. By the way, if you follow my advice and still get lost, remember - NEVER LEAVE YOUR AIRCRAFT. If you do, you will greatly increase the chance of losing your life. Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw graduated from The Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, in 1934 and joined the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1935. J?U,ring his career, he spent 19 years ~n flying and navigation instruction rea~h~ng the position of Chief of ' Tra~n~ng for the R.C.A.F. He ended his career as Commander of the R.C.A.F. Air Division in Europe which was equipped with supersonic 104 aircraft in the nuclear role. Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw has been President of The Confederation Coll~ge of Applied Arts and Technology s~nce 1967. REMEMBER. "There are old pi lots and there are bold pilots, but there are no old bold pi lots." Just sit and TRANSPORT MINISTER MARCHAND RELEASES REPORT ON FATAL ST. JAMES AIR CRASH: OTTAWA - The crash of a Beechcraft 18 aircraft at St. James, Manitoba, with the death of the pilot and his passengers, eight school children, last June 24, was caused by loss of engine power and the pilot's failure to respond effectively to the situation. The report of the Transport Ministry listed the following conclusions: have a cup of coffee until conditions improve. Many experienced pilots and navigators will spot deficiencies in the above. Many will have all kinds of additional 11 tricks of the trade". Agreed - but the basis of this dissertation is to demonstrate that with m~ni~al _equipment, common sense, selfd~sc~pl~ne and reasonable application of basic air navigation, the chances of getting lost can be made negligibly sma 11. If I were asked in what area an amateur pilot or bush pilot (or any other kind of pilot) should become as proficient as possible, I would have to say meteorology, with particular emphasis on weather phenomena during all seasons pertaining to his part of the country. After that, if he uses his head he will enjoy more - The aircraft's left engine lost power after take-off from Winnipeg International Airport. - The pilot did not follow prescribed emergency procedures after the initial power loss. - The right engine lost power because the pilot turned the right fuel selector valve to the 11 off 11 position. - The pilot had not been adequately trained in emergency procedures. "Following Winds and Happy Landings". 17 �"Wolf" Ozburn (see Caret I) and John Butler (right) ... assemble ... The Tower. "Some difficulty was experienced . . . The completed tower looks most impressive" Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw CF - KTK - X was one of Jim Wheeler's assignments. "There are old pilots and bold pilots but . ... " " ... I was the proudest employee they had" �THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN OBSERVAT!ON TOWER By John R. Butler "lit 0010 hrD., the party headed out into the teeth of a 30 m.p.h. wind. 'The temperature was 5°F., and this coupled with the wind., produced a chill factor of -55°F - the snow felt Zike hot needles on the face. " we get cracking. A JS tracked-vehicle was rented with a truck large enough to carry the structure along with ropes, ladders and a rock drill. We managed to squeeze the tower into the truck (disassembled, of course) and the party then proceeded to Ray Trowbridge 1 s cabin which lies at the foot of Black Bay. This was to be our headquarters. The assembly party varied in number from time to time, but fortunately, there were never less than eight members comprised of faculty, students and staff. On the morning of the great day, a party of five (three on snow machines, two on the J5) started on an exploratory trip to the island to check the snow and ice conditions. Visibility was down to about a hundred yards, and the crews on the small machines were to run ahead of the JS to check ice thickness and the depth of slush under the snow. Unfortunately, we had no prior knowledge of the performance of the JS and we rapidly discovered two problems. The top speed was 2 m.p.h. and it was difficult to steer in a straight line. As a result, our course was like the trajectory of a curve ba l 1 ! The island loomed out of the driving snow to an impressive height as we finally approached it. We found it impossible to climb to the top with the machines, as the lower rocks were glazed with ice from the early winter storms, and so we inspected the tower site on snowshoes. As everything seemed to be in order, we returned to base to prepare for the big haul the next day. The round trip time for this journey was seven hours in the most miserable of conditions. Next morning, the party assembled ,early in clear and sunny weather. The above sounds more 1 ike an excerpt from Scott 1 s diary than a description of the conditions encountered by a work party from the Science Faculty adventuring out to erect a bird observation tower on a remote island in Black Bay. The project started when Dr. J. P. Ryder of the Biology Department asked if my department could construct an observation tower in connection with his study of gulls on Granite Island, six miles offshore in Black Bay, on Lake Superior. Apparently, the gulls are very nervous and conventional blinds are ineffective - the slightest noise will disturb the birds during the nesting period. It was hoped that a sol id, insulated cabin on top of a tower would enable the colony to carry on with the minimum of upset (and give a modicum of comfort to the observers!). The tower was completed about the middle of February, 1972. Its completion finally brought to a head the nagging problem - how to get it to Granite Island? Several ideas were proposed, most of them impractical. The Canadian Armed Forces, when asked for help, did not flatly reject the request, but the tower had to be assembled before the birds returned to the island to nest and the Services were not prepared to indicate when they could help. The fact that we had a 3,000 pound load to move and the knowledge that the snow conditions generally start to deteriorate rapidly in March suggested that 19 �Deloney I. D 8 I o c k IJ Scimming Vt. 8 , t"\.. '-'- 0 0 y • Foxhound Granite I. Rk. Green /. 5 MILES 20 �(This often occurs in Northwestern Ontario the day following a storm.) We quickly loaded the tower and cabin components on a massive sleigh which was borrowed for the occasion from a local farmer. Almost before sunup, the party now numbering ten distributed on four snow machines and the JS with sleigh behind ran down the bank onto the lake. The lake surface was very irregular as the wind tends to form the snow into a series of waves - very much like sand in the desert. The trip out to the island was fairly uneventful. The major problem was the lack of steering response from the JS. When a course correction was needed, the sleigh had to be disconnected, while the machine was maneuvered into position! Also there was some concern that the old sleigh would collapse, as it was sinking very deeply into the snow and the towing machine had difficulty at times to keep moving. The party arrived at the island about noon, and after a snack, started unloading and transporting the materials up the side of the island where a cache was made just below the summit. Not enough time was left that day to start erecting the tower, and so the party returned to camp and set about reloading the truck with the equipment that would not be required for assembly. Some difficulty was experienced in coaxing the J5 back onto the truck, since the snowbanks were either not high enough or too soft to maneuver the machine over the tailgate. A number of the party finally drove the truck and the JS to the Dorion Hotel where a loading ramp was available. The JS had no lights, and so it was fortunate that the O.P.P. were not encountered on this occasion! The next two trips to the island were conducted in fine, almost warm weather. On the following weekend, the party successfully erected the tower components, after the site was cleared of snow and all parts had been carried to the top of the hill. We had taken the precaution of including a gasoline-powered rock drill in our equipment, and our intrepid JS driver, Bud Russell, turned out to be an efficient hole puncher. On the final trip, a week later, a little more energy had to be expended as some of the cabin components were quite heavy and these had to be manually lifted twenty feet up the tower for assembly on the cabin floor. Luckily there was no wind blowing that day. The completed tower looks most impressive. It is very sound and is now weathering its second winter. Dr. Ryder is so.pleased with it that we have been commissioned to make another smaller installation for the McKenzie Delta. The whole operation was really quite enjoyable and illustrates the wide scope of the work undertaken by the University's technical staff. Mr. Butler is in charge of the Science Workshop of Lakehead University. He is responsible for the manufactui e of a 1JJide range of equipment 1JJhich is used by undergraduates and research 1JJorkers. One day, he is to be seen making a tiny, tiny instrument no larger than a lady's 1JJrist 1JJatch and the next day, he is 1JJorking on a major building project Zike the one described in his article. People like Mr. Butler are vital to the functioning of a good Faculty of Science and it is rare that they are able to describe their 1JJork to the public, not because they are ina~ticulate - it's just that nobody g~ves them the chance! 1 21 �THE USE OF AN OBSERVATION TOWER By John Ryder THE TOWER IS ESSENTIAL TO RESEARCH nize individuals. It is important for us to know where individuals are nesting, how many eggs are in the nest, how many fights an individual has and with whom, how many fights each individual wins and loses and most importantly, what part does fighting play in the success of a pair in hatching their eggs. You would be surprised that fighting and aggressive displays are very important attributes which can determine the success of a nest. In addition, we want to find out if the same birds come back to the same nest site each year and if they nest near to the same birds year after year. We can only answer these and other questions by watching marked undisturbed birds in their natural environment. The gulls get used to the tower. They actually sit on the roof during observation so that's pretty good proof that it works! After two or three hours in the tower using a scope to check tag numbers, the observer leaves because his observation efficiency rapidly declines after that amount of time. Observations are continued, genera 11 y on a da i 1y basis, in an effort, which may take years, to understand the workings of a complex animal society. The observation tower that Mr. Butler built is used in a project dealing with the 11 sociobiology 11 of Ring-billed Gulls. These birds are colonial nesting in large numbers close toge~her on a smal 1 island near Thunder Bay. There are about 1200 gull nests on the island so it is easy to rapidly obtain information we are looking for. Ring-billed Gulls are timid birds. If a person walks on the nesting area the birds take to the air and chaos prevails until the person leaves. Under these conditions, collecting biological data, especially about their behaviour, is impossible. This is where the overwhelming importance of the observation tower is realized. The observation tower is an extremely important tool of behavioural research conducted under natural, uncontrolled field conditions. It allows the investigator to observe animals behave normally and respond to the many environmental stimuli the same as they would with no person present. Individual items of information collected from watching undisturbed animals are valuable to the scientist when he pieces them together to determine how the organism he is studying has adapted to the environment in which it lives. Tower operation is fairly precise. ~he investigator enters the tower early 1n the morning. This initially disturbs the gulls so information cannot be collected for at least thirty minutes. During this time, the observer sits quietly in the tower so as not to redisturb the birds as they settle down on their nests. When the birds have settled down, the observer can then start collecting data. D~. Ryder is Assistant Professor of B~ology at Lakehead University where he teaches ornithology, boreal ecology and next year comparative vertebrate anatomy. His research inte~ests _involve the sociobiology of R~ng-b~lled Gulls and parasites of gull nests. The results of Dr. Ryd~r's research have been published ~n a number of scholarly journals and natural history magazines. DATA ARE COLLECTED ON MANY CHARACTERISTICS In our project we are marking birds with special tags so that we can recog22 �BIOLOGY FROM THE STUDENTS' EYE VIEW By Jean Pekkala and Frank Cartwright second, third and fourth year students for summer empl0yment in the field of one's choice, working on research projects being carried out by the professors. Besides the regular hours of class and studying, there are a great many activities one can participate in school-related or otherwise. Students are given almost a free hand as to what they would like to do for themselves or for the benefit of their Department or both. They can carry out a great number of projects under departmental supervision and it is up to the students involved to see to it that these extracurricular projects are consummated. After classes, we now have the newly formed Biology Club, which is looking for help, suggestions and most of all support from the student body, which is the essential stuff of which clubsare formed. The Club is planning various activities such as guest speakers, field trips, movies and socials whereby the students can meet the faculty and actually participate in the activities be they academically centered or otherwise. The total approach is not of overburdenment, for once interest has been PRO AND CON As science students in the Biology Department we find the program open in that it allows the choice of a wide scope of topics, be they plant or animal in nature. Once we had the essential introductory courses in first and second year Biology, we were then free in third and fourth year to choose our own courses in relation to our proposed post-graduate work. Most third and fourth year courses are half-term in duration. They have their pro and con as viewed by the students. The pro is that you can get a wide survey of selected topics in your chosen field, and by Christmas your first term subjects are all over and done with; then with the start of the new year one embarks on a study of completely new topics. The con is that an excess of knowledge is crammed into a limited amount of time. If a student has problems ~nd does not seek assistance, by the time he solves his problems, it may be too late to do well on his exams - which are finals! Some new core courses which run for the full year combat this problem. Lakehead University is not a big university and the classes are relatively small. Thus biology students have a more intimate contact with the professors, who are easily available to the students during the day. The labs are not only open in the daytime, but in the evenings and weekends, as we 11. shown on the student's side, faculty will do everything possible to aid the student to achieve a chosen goal. m THE STRESS WHEEL: The stress wheel is a planting design for test crops. It resembles the spokes of a huge wheel with the rim removed. Single rows, about thirty-five feet long, stretch out like the radii of a circle from a central point. The planted rows vary in width from narrow at the center to wider at the outside rim. Spacings are ., three feet at the end and narrow down to zero at the center of the wheel. During 1972 at Brandon, one wheel contained ninety-two rows or spokes. As you stand at the center, you can see at a glance how each variety in the test performs. EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES For third and fourth year students, there is a wide range of opportunities made available for 11 demonstrating 11 the laboratory portion of most of the courses offered: this enables one to put his knowledge combined with his own personal skills into use and use his acquired knowledge to teach others. There are also opportunities open to 23 �THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF BIOLOG STS By C. A. E1sey THE IMPORTANCE OF OPTIMIZATION out adversely affecting the complex and frequently sensitive ecosystems. It is therefore the responsibility of biologists to determine optimum utilization or harvest limitations and thus manage the resources on a sustained yie1d basis to provide opportunities for continuing outdoor recreation and resource development. The goal of the Ministry of Natural Resources is 11 to provide opportunities for outdoor recrea.tion and resource deve1opment for the continuous social and economic benefit of the people of Ontario and to administer, protect and conserve public lands and waters". Within the bounds of this statement lies the objective of the Outdoor Recreation Program 11 to provi de from public lands and waters and to encourage on other lands and waters: a wide variety of outdoor recreational opportunities accessible to and for the continuous benefit of the people of Ontario; the identification and conservation of unique or representative physical, biological, cultural and historica~ features of the province; a continuous contribution to the economy of Ontario from tourism and its related industries 11 • The objective of the Resource Products Program is "to provide an optimum continuous contribution to the economy of Ontario by stimulating and regulating the utilization of available supplies of fish, furbearers, minerals and trees by resource products industries". To attain these objectives, the program of the biologist is correlated with the program of the foresters, land managers, geologists and other ministries of government. ONE MOOSE PER SQUARE MILE In this part of Ontario we can consider that we are deali~g with a sensitive environment. In most places, soils are very thin with bedrock not far below. The fertility of what soils we have is low. We live in an adverse climate one that does not provide for optimum or maximum use of available fertility. Moose populations can be expected in our area to have an average density of 0.8 to 1.0 moose per square mile. This means that we can expect to have something a little less than 20,000 moose in Thunder Bay district. Good management suggests that we can harvest about 25% or between four and five thousand per year. We are now harvesting slightly less than 2,000 per year. However, because of access problems, some areas are being lightly harvested and other areas heavily harvested. In the interests of good management, it would be desirable to redistribute the harvest. How is this done? Management is trying to find an answer and that answer must, by objective, consider the needs (tourist industry, 7conomic Jobs, etc.) 1 as well as the recreational needs of the people of Ontario. The fur business is an economic The direat responsibility of biologists to the people of Ontario is to provide an optimum opportunity for reareation through fishing, hunting and viewing, and to aontribute to the eaonorrry of Ontario through tourism, aommeraial fishing and trapping. It is important that full utilization be achieved with24 �need for many people. To some it is a hobby as well. The trap-line manager is faced with the responsibility of designing a management program that will meet the economic needs, as well as biological requirements. Recreation is not a primary consideration in this program. FUR-PRICES - - -INCREASE --- Fur farmers are smiling on their way to the bank this year. Pr~ces have increased sharply and mink producers are optimistic that the market will remain firm. The return of strong prices will enable mink ranchers to pay off debts which accumulated during recent years, when prices sometimes sank below the cost of production. . A clearer assessment of production, demand and longer-term price trends will be available early in the year, particularly for wild furs. Fur prices normally fluctuate and, in the past, strong prices have often been followed by a sag as buyers fill their needs. This year, however, overall demand is strong and there are indications that the fur industry may be on a general upswing which will shore up prices. The reason for the increased demand is hard to pin-point, but there is speculation that incomes around the world are rising to the point where more consumers can afford the luxury of fur. Prices for ranched mink in December were about twenty-five per cent higher than a year earlier. The quantities of wild furs available are limited. All colors are in demand, but price increases are strongest for female pelts. These are smaller and lighter than the males, and thus are well suited for capes and jackets, currently popular retail items. The demand is very strong for furs from Canada's north, and competition by buyers from many countries has ~ushed prices to the highest levels in many years. Beaver pelts brought about thirtyfive per cent more this year, red fox almost one-hundred per cent more; lynx pelts set record prices; and coyote and racoon prices advanced nearly one-hundred per cent. FISHING IS IMPORTANT, TOO Our lakes in this area suffer from low fertility levels and a very short growing season. Because the chemical and physical characteristics of lakes vary from lake to lake, the productivity of lakes will vary. On the average, we can expect lake trout lakes to yield about one-quarter of a pound to one-ha1f pound per surface acre per year. Pickerel-pike lakes may yield about two to three pounds per acre per year. A sport fishery will contribute to both recreational and economic needs. A commercial fishery will contribute to the economic needs of a different group of people. If a fishery can withstand both angling and commercial fishing on a sustained yield basis, then it is obvious that both types of fishing shou1d co-exist. Here again the biologist is looking for that thin-line position where he is working within bio1ogica1 limitations to meet both the economic and recreational needs of the people of Ontario. In the nature of resource management, it is inevitable that there should sometimes be conflict of interest between branches of the same ministry and between minlstries. Such conflicts are ironed out by consultation. Mr. Elsey graduated from the University of Saskatchewan.in 1946 with an MSc degree in limnology. After graduating, he stayed on at the University of Saskatchewan for a year as an instructor. Since that time he has worked in Ontario (mainly in the north) as a biologist and fish and wildlife supervisor. 25 �Robert A. Ross Leslie Woodrow "Man's ingenuity knows no real bounds" "Every housewife washing clothes . .. is hindering the survival of man himself!" "0.8 to 7.0 moose per square mile!" �Jean Pekkala and biologists "There is a wide range of opportunities" Ran Ide ''The opening of culture can be achieved in education programs" Mr. Elsey (right) and friends "The fur business is an economic need for many people" (Courtesy, Chronicle Journal) �THE CATALYTIC REMOVAL OF AIR POLLUTANTS - QUO VADIS ? By Robert A. Ross conditions, the properties of the contaminant, the topography of the area, and the design and height of the stack or chimney through which the exhaust is discharged. Many of the exhaust components undergo reactions in the atmosphere and fall back to the earth as secondary products. A significant example of this phenomenon occurs in London, England in the absence of appreciable sunshine during winter when smoke and sulphur dioxide accumulate in damp, static air masses with the consequent conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid or sulfate compounds attached to smoke particles. Ultimately, with slow precipitation thousands of tons of sulfuric acid and filthy soot seep into the city with disturbing consequences on mortality rate, corrosion and erosion. of buildings and botanical plant 1 ifecycles. In the great London smog of 1952, four thousand deaths of people with respiratory diseases were attributed to this cause. Subsequent legislation compelling both the industrial and domestic use of smokeless sol id fuels has eased, but not entirely eradicated the problem. Since the concentrations of gaseous pollutants in air are considerably greater than those of particulate matter, most current research is devoted to the discovery and appl ication of methods designed to minimize and possibly e1 iminate deleterious gases from industrial effluents. Disregarding carbon dioxide, the most abundant air pollutants are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. The tolerance level for carbon monoxide is considered to be exceeded on exposure to 30 parts per hundred million, pphm, of the gas for more than eight hours. This level of exposure is not likely to occur in normal circumstances. Furthermore, carbon monoxide does not partake in HYGIENE: CAVEMAN TO ASTRONAUT Contrary to popular belief, problems associated with the disposal of sol id, liquid and gaseous waste products are not new but must have exercised the mind of Neanderthal man. The rudiments of elementary hygiene were not unknown, even then! The rapid growth of the materialistic needs and desires of our astronaut society in the past two decades has created waste and more waste and engendered an awareness of wastedisposal problems in the minds of both professional and amateur environmentalists. To most politicians, the pollution of the environment is almost a cause celebre! On the other hand, many industries find the costs of installing existing remedial processes so prohibitively expensive that plant closures are often considered, and thus employment is jeopardized. Such is the dilemma and challenge posed to our society by this huge issue. THE GUILTY SOURCES The particular problem of the contamination of the atmosphere is created mainly by the exhaust gases from chemical and metallurgical process plants, oil refineries, power plants, domestic and industrial heating processes and internal combustion engines. These contaminants may be emitted as particulate matter -- dust, smoke, and smog -- or as 1 trace 1 amounts of deleterious gases, often both types occur together. The gases may be poisonous, malodorous or even apparently innocuous. After exhaustion to the air, the contaminants usually do not fall within the immediate vicinity of the emitting source but are dispersed by the wind and are spread over an extensive fallout area. The nature of the dispersion process depends on several factors including meteorological 78 �any significant reactions after its emission and hence its removal from exhaust gases has received much less attention than that accorded to sulfur and nitrogen dioxides. magnitude of these removal tasks can be appreciated by noting that in the United States alone, near1y 29,000,000 tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted to the atmosphere in 1966 and for 1980, a potential figure of more than twice that amount can be estimated. costly platinum group catalysts which were firsts ied in the decomposition nitric oxide nearly fifty years ago! Of course, giant corporatio~s and interests are involved in activities and the various implications are truly extensive. THE NORTHWESTERN ONTARIO PROBLEM In Northwestern Ontario, the significant sources of air contamination are the pulp and paper mills. The malodorous components of the effluent gases are mainly hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans and organic disulfides. Hydrogen sulfide is possibly the most common offender of such gases with an odour threshold reported to be as low as 0.7 pphm. The gas is also extremely toxic since a level of 400 to 700 ppm may be dangerous to life after an exposure time of 30 to 60 minutes. In spite of recent efforts to eliminate the hazard, the gas can still be detected in the effluent from some chemical recovery plant emission stacks. A possible method for the removal of these sulfur gases is by catalytic oxidation, which can be followed by recovery of the sulfur dioxide formed. At Lakehead University an active research program, led by Dr. Walter Cook, has been initiated on this theme. A key feature of the study is the emphasis placed on the catalytic removal of the compounds to an effluent level below that of the odour threshold. The method would not be considered to be a success by the local population, at any rate, unless this were achieved! Using a series of mixed oxide cata1ysts supported on alpha-alumina, Dr. Cook has shown that hydrogen sulfide at 600 ppm in nitrogen/air mixtures can be almost completely oxidized to sulfur dioxide when passed once in a flowing stream over these materials at 200 to 320°C. The most ive catalyst that he has discovered so far, contains mo] A POSSIBLE REMEDY The choice of a method for partial or total removal of air contaminants depends on many factors including operation efficiency, feasibility and cost. Of the many techniques available for the reduction of pollution due to sulfur and nitrogen dioxides, the heterogeneous catalytic method presents a viable possibility. For example, sulfur dioxide may be converted to the trioxide in an oxidizing flue gas at high efficiencies when it is passed over a composite sol id catalyst containing transition metal oxides supported on alkalized silica gel. Subsequent operations may be introduced to produce sulfuric acid from the trioxide in a controlled way. An alternative catalytic oxidation process which originated in Japan involves mixing ammonia with oxidized sulphur dioxide in the flue gas to form ammonium sulfate over a vanadium pentoxide catalyst. Although the catalytic treatment of nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases from internal combustion engines is complicated by the presence of hydrocarbons and lead compounds, the method is still attractive since the principal products of the decomposition of the oxides are nitrogen and oxygen which can be vented safely to the atmosphere. Substantial current research activities by automobile manufacturers on catalytic methods of exhaust emission control seem to be emphasizing the use of 29 �lates, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and_ hydrocarbons. The information has been classi ed into five major categories of sources: industrial processes, fuel combustion in stationary sources, transportation sources, solid waste disposal and miscellaneous sources. The study is based on 1970 data and will be updated at regular intervals. This updating, combined with ongoi measurements of air pollution levels by surveillance networks throughout Canada, will give a clear indication of progress in the control of air pollution. Commenting on significant findings, Mr. Davis noted that transportation accounted for 57% of total air pollution emissions of 31.2 million tons. The Federal Government is actively engaged in the control of motor vehicle emissions. The inventory further confirms our concerns about air pollution from this source", Mr. Davis said. The inventory also shows that one industrial sector - primary copper and nickel - accounted for4.5 million tons, or 14% of total emissions in Canada. He noted that Environment Canada has been working closely with the Provinces in tackling this problem. Copies of this inventory, in summary form, are available to public on request. Write: The denum and cobalt oxides. One substantial bonus from this work has been the development of instrumental analytical methods for the deteciion of hydrogen sulfide in these low concentrations. Further studies in cooperation with Dr. Michael Jeanes are presently concerned with an examination of the reactivity and ~fficiency of the catalysts in the oxidation of organic sulfides and thiols using more com: plex carrier gas mixtures which reflect more closely on the actual composition of Kraft mill stack gases. This local example illustrates that environmental problems created by advanced technology can be solved by technology. Man's ingenuity knows no real bounds and undoubtedly there are better ways than that chosen. However, the question still remains-HOW MUCH ARE WE PREPARED TO PAY? 11 Formerly an industrial researcher for Unilever Limited and Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Dr. Ross came to Lakehead University from an academic post in Belfast, Northern Ireland in 1969, just when the current "troubles" in that province were starting. Now the Dean of Science at Lakehead University, he is the author of several papers on heterogeneous catalysis, technological and surface chemistry. He maintains that he is a hopeless golfer and a lazy gardener. Information Branch, Department of the Environment, Ottawa, K1A OH3 or telephone (819) 997-2944. Mlidii ■ @N d EF- A Canada-wide inventory of five major air pollutant emissions has been completed by Environment Canada. Announcing the findings of the study, Environment Minister Jack Davis noted that it was the first comprehensive nationwide inventory of its kind in Canada. Pollutants covered in the inventory are: sulphur oxides, particu- FLUENT: Pickle liquor or spent plating bath solutions can be treated to recover valuable metals (nickel, copper, zinc, silver, etc.) and to remove toxic compounds such as cyanides, chromates and phenols. Reverse osmosis, chemical precipitation and ion flotation techniques can be used to treat the effluent streams. 30 �DETERGENTS AND OUR WATER By Gordon Francis Most people feel that large industries are the main polluters of the environment. This may be true, but many housewives do not realize that they are also contributing to the deterioration of our waters. Every housewife washing clothes with a detergent is hindering the survival of aquatic 1 ife and in the end, man hi mse 1f ! When detergen~s are dumped into waterways, whether they are soft detergents (ones that break down • into their elements easily) or hard detergents (ones that take a long time to break down), they lower the oxygen content and may kill aquatic life, such as fairy shrimp, mayfly larva and other minute organisms. This life near the bottom of the food chain causes predators that feed on these organisms to die from starvation if they have not already died by suffocation. The Chemistry 40 class did a series of phosphate and phosphorous tests to determine the levels in some of the leading brands of oetergents. The results are shown below. From our experiments we found that Sunlight contains the smallest amount of phosphorus and / or phosphate of all the detergents tested. We conclude that Sunlight would be the best detergent to use in the home if you want to do your part in trying to improve our water quality. This is consistent with the fact that Sunlight is a soap and does not contaiA the same nutrient phosphorus as detergents. DETERGENT GOOD SUNLIGHT BAD % PHOSPHATE Less than 1% Less than 1% ALCONOX 9.9 % 10.0 % TIDE 11 . 75 % IVORY LIQUID 13.2 % ALL 13.98 % 30.6 36.20 40.5 39.49 GALGONITE BOLD 21. 50 % 24.8 % 62.52 % 76.6 % ARCTIC POWER V % PHOSPHORUS 30.50 % % % % % THE EXPERIMENT volatile and combustible material has escaped and smoking subsides. Now heat vigorously for 5 minutes. 2. Allow to cool and transfer the contents to a 250 ml erlenmeyer flask, rinse the crucible with several 5 ml portions of concentrated hydrochloric acid, adding Purpose: To determine the phosphates in detergents. Method: 1. Place 1.00 ± .01 g of detergent into a crucible. Heat carefully over a low flame until most of the 31 �rinsings to the flask. 3. Carefully heat the flask almost to dryness (use a retort stand and asbestos mat to avoid splashing). 4. Cool. Add 50 ml distilled water, 10 ml concentrated HCl, cover with a watch glass, and boil gently for about 10 minutes. 5. Allow to cool and filter, washing the filter paper with several 10 ml aliquots of distilled water to bring the total volume to 200 ml in a 400 ..ml beaker. 6. Set up pH meter, allow meter to warm up for 10 minutes before standardizing. 7. With electrodes partially immersed in solution, add 50% sodium hydroxide to convert H3 P04 to H2 P0 4 until pH of above 4 is reached. Now add dilute sodium hydroxide until pH is exactly 4.3. 8. Record the burette reading and continue to add dilute NaOH until the pH= 8.8. Opencast Executive of the National Coal Board operates mainly along the northern outcrop from Kidwelly in the west to Blaenavon in the east and along the southern outcrop east of Port Talbot. Annual production is about two and a half million tons compared to a total of fourteen and a half million tons won by the National Coal Board 1 s East and West Wales Areas by conventional deep mining methods. The Opencast Executive has no compulsory powers to acquire land and it is required to operate subject to such conditions as are laid down by the planning authorities. These conditions invariably set out the type of restoration that is required after mining has finished and over a period of years the opencast coal industry has been at pains to show by the success of its restoration that it is not only economically right but can also contribute greatly to the improvement of the environment. The techniques of opencasting involve stripping topsoil and subsoil which are stacked in separate dumps for eventual replacement. The ideal is to restore one foot thickness of topsoil and two feet of subsoil over the area stripped. Topsoil found on sites in South Wales is invariably very much less than one foot thick, and quite often the subsoil is clay of very small particle size which is virtually useless for agriculture. So the practice is to set aside not only the available topsoil and subso 1 but as much soil-making material as is required for the proper restoration of the sites. This material usually consists sandy clay contained in the glacial drift that can sustain good plant life when fertilized and cultiva Recheck your titration value by adding concentrated hydrochloric acid and bring pH back to 4.3 and repeating the titration. Opencast Coal Mining Opencast coal mining began in the United Kingdom in 1942 when as much coal as possible had to be produced. It still goes on because it is a flexible and economical method. Opencast sites can quickly meet demands for a coal of a particular quality when traditional deep mining methods cannot. It also frequently offers a unique opportunity for the clearance of dereliction in coal mining areas and British manufacturers are provided withal ively home market for earth moving and other equipment that they sell abroad, too. The topsoil and subsoil are stripped off first and dumped to form sound baffles or screens near to houses. They are sown with grass and kept from weed growth so that they are not eyesores. In the South Wales Coalfield, the 32 �THE CTS PROJECT AND SOME EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS By T. R. Ide COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE - A NEW VENTURE and it is this feature that permits the use of the smaller and less expensive ground receivers and transmitters. Existing satellites, despite the relatively high cost of their receiving and transmitting stations, have proved valuable in linking points at great distances from each other. It is not practical or economic, however, to utilize them unless there are· highly sophisticated secondary forms of communications systems such as broadcast networks already in existence. Such restraints will not apply to nearly the same degree to the CTS. In August 1975 the Canadian Department of Communications, in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), plans to launch a Communications Technology Satellite (CTS). The concept of this joint program was first put forward in 1969, and an agreement was subsequently reached in which Canada undertook to design and build the spacecraft, with NASA providing the launch vehicle and some of the advanced components, such as the 200 Watt Travell inQ Wave Tube transmitter.1 This is the first such experimental project. Previous Canadian Satellites, Alouette and Anik, were operational rather than experimental, and reflected an interpretation of established technology, whereas CTS is a distinctly ~ew venture and is so designed that, 1f successful, it will mean a major step forward towards the improvement of the means of communication. The principal objective of the project is to demonstrate the viability of relatively low cost ground receiving and transmitting stations in the order of $2,000 - $15,000 compared with the present Anik's $150,000 - $200,000. To this end, the designers are utilizing frequencies in the 12 and 14 GHz 2 bands at power levels significantly greater than those provided by existing spacecraft. Prior to 1971, the only frequencies allocated for satellite communications were below 9 GHz which had to be shared with some fixed terrestrial services, and hence were subject both to frequency sharing constraints and power limitations by international agreement. In contrast, there is no power limit imposed on satellite transmissions on the new frequencies being used, ORBIT IS SYNCHRONOUS The Spacecraft, expected to have a life of two years, will be launched by NASA using a three stage vehicle (DELTA) and will be located in synchronous orbit at 114 degrees west longitude. A synchronous satellite rotates around the earth at the same speed as the earth and consequently appears to be in a stationary position over the earth. Once stationary with respect to the earth, the power will be derived from two batteries plus solar cells mounted both on the body of the satellite and on two extendable sails each 244 inches long and 51 inches wide. There are two antennas, each of which provides for the simultaneous transmission and reception of signals that may be aimed at any area in Canada or the United States (including Hawaii). The size of the signal contours (foot-prints), of course, varies with latitude and longtitude. However, in Canada, each foot-print is approximately 1000 miles long and 300 mi 1es wide. Despite the fact that the experimental time is limited, not only 33 �by the life of the satellite and the fact that it will be shared by both countries, but also by the numerous technical systems and sub-systems to be tested, an unusual opportunity exists for organizations interested in the educational and sociological implications of satellite communications to devise and propose experimental projects which might utilize effectively the unique capacity of the satellite to span distant and diverse communities, to access isolated communities, and to utilize the feedback capabilities of the system. In Canada, the federal Department of Communications convened a meeting in Winnipeg on October 18, l 972 , at wh i ch an , i nv i tat i on to s ub mit proposals was given 3 and some of the parameters to be considered we re out 1 i ned. The satellite itself will have the capability of transmitting from a main station simultaneously a combination of a colour TV signal, a sound broadcast signal, and up to ten channels of two-way voice to a variety of remote terminals. At the same time, it will be possible to transmit a colour TV signal from a remote transmission station to the main terminal. Ground terminals will consist of: (1) the existing 30 foot terminal at the Communications Research Centre in Ottawa capable of transmitting al 1· types of signals envisaged for the CTS satellite; (2) TV Remote Transportable Transmitters with ten-foot antennas and high power transmitters with a similar capacity as the Ottawa terminal; (3) mediumsized terminals with eight-foot antennas capable of receiving a TV signal with one audio channel and/or receiving and transmitting a telephone-quality voice channel and/or receiving sound broadcast signals, and (4) small-sized terminals with three-foot antennas capable of a two-way voice channel and sound broadcast receiver. Up to the present no decision has been made by the federal authorities as to the final number of ground stations they intend to supply. It is preiumed, however, that the number of such stations will be determined by the availability of funds and the quality of the proposals received. EXCHANGES OF PROGRAMS ESSENTIAL The Ontario Educational Communications Authority has been authorized by its Board to submit a communications experiment proposal to the Department of Communications. In essence, we see fou~ (possible configurations: ( l) 'Northno North; (2) North~ to S6uth;· (3) South to North, and (4) Southl o South. At the present time the proposal is in the draft stage, but it is hoped that Ontario might cooperate with other provincial jurisdictions, particularly in the north to north experiments, and with the Un,ited States in the south to south. It is the Authority's view that exchanges of programs between agencies with similar interests are essential if we are to devise techniques for surviving iQ a global village where electronic walls, even if desirable, are no longer possible. The Authority has also volunteered to act as'a clearing house for submissions from individual educational institutions. One such proposal has already been received from Lakehead University. It wi 11 be given every consideration by the OECA to see whether or not it might be an integral part of the general configurations described above, as well as being forwarded to the appropriate Department of Communications Project Officer. THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY It is our belief that the experiments should utilize the unique characteristics of the CTS 34 �that of software. Perhaps in this case the trend may be reversed. systems. For this reason, we have emphasized communications with isolated areas. Some of the issues described in detail in the OECA'S proposal include: the search for identity and its association with the problems of isolation; health care; education - both culturally maintaining and expanding; and the need for opportunities to participate in the decision making process. Some of the purposes of the experiment which are central are assumed to be: development of communications skills in native peoples; formation of guidelines relating to the nature of future communications policies in the North; measurement of the impact of modern communications on the Northern peoples; determination of the viability of satellite communications systems in remote areas; diagnostic assistance and health education; and an exploration of the extent to which an effective balance between the maintenance of a culture and the opening of the culture can be achieved in education programs. While the major emphasis has been placed on experiments which relate to the needs of the peoples in the Northern regions, some suggestions have been included which will test the economic viability of using the CTS system in the South. These include: an exchange of audio-visual programs between provincial ministries of education; a cooperative project with the State of New York to investigate programs designed to assist in the rehabilitation of the physically disabled, and links between post-secondary institutions in Ontario and California of a te1econference nature. In summary, the CTS satellite appears to offer educators and sociologists a unique opportunity to investigate the potential of a satellite communications system when the ground stations are of a moderate cost. In the past, it has seemed inevitable that the development of hardware always outstrips FOOTNOTES 1 Unique aspects of the satellite, in addition to the frequency and power of the transmitter, include the ion engine which uses the thrust of ions emitted to help maintain a more exact stationary position in orbit, and liquid metal slip rings which are used to transmit electrical signals between rotating parts of the satellite. 2A gigaherz (GHz) is unit of frequency measurement corresponding to one billion cycles per second. Thus the frequency of CTS is 12,500,000,000 cycles per second. By comparison, VHF television operates in the range 54 to 216 megaherz (MHz) [54,000,000 to 216,000,000]~ and UHF television in the range 470 to 890 MHz [470,000,000 to 890,000,000]~ A megahertz corresponds to one million cycles per second. 3Proposals in writing should be submitted to: Mr. J. Gilbert, Manager, Socio-Economic Project Officer, DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATIONS, 100 Metcalfe Street, Ottawa, Ontario. KlA OC8. ;'.Editor's gloss. T. R. Ide is the Chairman of The Ontario Educational Communications Authority, a Crown Corporation of the Province of Ontario, responsible for the development communications technology. Mr. spent twenty years in Thunder Bay as a teacher, principal and superintendent with the Port Arthur Board of Education. 35 �PRESENT AWARENESS By a Liberal Science Student Scientists are seeking other ways of producing power. Experiments in fusion (the H bomb effect) may be successful by the end of the century and might eventually provide us with tremendous amounts of energy. J.1his This winter, the citizens of the United States have been experiencing gas cuts, failing oil deliveries and electrical 11 brownouts 11 : they have experienced the energy crisis at first hand. Canadians are only vague1y aware of the problem, which concerns us because in simple terms, our neighbours want our fuel. Some of the more perceptive Canadian politicians and their constituents are beginning to wake up to the fact that perhaps we should take stock before we agree to let them have it. In a nuts he 11-: we shou 1d make sure that we have enough for our own needs before we sell any more. 1 is not by any means a sure thing. Solar energy (harnessing the sunlight) is a long-term possibility, but trapping and storing energy would involve the use of vast expanses of territory and is not at present a feasible project. Efforts by scientists to improve our exploitation of the sun as a source of power have, in the past, been aimed at increasing the sunlight-conversion efficiency of solar cells. Such cells, in the form of large panels attached to satellites, might one day allow their collected energy to be beamed down to earth by microwaves. 1 But the developmental problems of all such innovative techniques are of such a scale as to be almost beyond our grasp. SOURCES OF ENERGY Our present sources of energy are oil, gas and coal. There is nuclear energy - but how soon wi11 nuclear reactors take over the task of providing the electricity that is needed? There is much misunderstanding about reactors: they cannot take over from oil tomorrow, next year, or even next decade. Reactors take about ten years to design and build: they can take up only a fraction of total load, and development is retarded by environmentalists who are opposing them on the grounds of safety and thermal pollution. The new breeder reactors are more attractive than the present nuclear reactors but design problems are fierce, and they represent a greater potential hazard than the 11 conventional 11 CANDU type reactors designed and insta1led in Canada. In the United States many vociferous citizens' groups are vigorously oppo3ing the proposed proliferation of breeder reactors. Yet the energy from them is urgently needed. CANADIAN RESEARCH Another programme, instituted by Canadian scientists, would use the energy from vegetation waste. It is contended that if Canada would devote some of its research budget to prc,mote 11 Bio mass research" the economic payoff would be great. (A simple biomass energy source has always been used for energy - wood chips and sawdust!) 2 Many other types of research into energy production are being carried out. Wind power is unreliable but might be useful on a small scale in underdeveloped regions. However the time it takes between the birth of each novel idea and the final implementation is long, much longer than people usually realize. The ten years lead time for a nuclear reactor is a flash compared with the lead time for a fusion reactor of a large-scale generating station. It is 36 �going to take a century for some of today's ideas to bear fruit. The results of today's decisions on the selection of projects for scientific research may not show up ti 11 2000 or later. The Canadian Government is right I think to insist that scientists should expend more energy on applied research than they have hitherto. If we let other countries continue to do the applied research, we shall never improve our economy. for applied research, and no doubt the Americans are working on it already. The Government of Canada is promosing us a policy on energy within the next few months. I ts policy on scientific research is sti 11 in the forming stage.·!· Citizens who are aware of the situation do have opportunities from time to time to make their voices heard. We, in our Liberal Science courses, are given at least a general background of knowledge on which to base our judgements. Scientists are beginning to realize that their work can only go forward if they have the backing of the government. We, as informed laymen, must realize that our duty is to encourage scientists and policy makers to make a greater effort to communicate with each other in the solution of real social problems. The energy situation will come to the top of the pile within our lifetimes. There's a better than even chance that our children will shiver as a result of our mistakes. CAN WE HELP? Can we cut down on the amount of energy we shall need? We can take certain precautions. We can limit the size of our families; form car pools instead of travelling one person to a car; encourage the greater use of mass transportation; turn off unnecessary lights and go without air conditioning. But there is one form of energy without which we are lost. In Canada we have to heat our homes in ZJ.,inter. Milton Rubin, an American scientist working on energy-utilization of efficiency, believes that 11 in considering the complete energy-use system, the trend should be toward the development and manufacture of more efficient (and probably more sophisticated and expensive) equipment". He gives the startling example that saving 200 kWh per year per refrigerator could be achieved by re-designing the domestic refr i ge rat or . I n the U. S . A. th i s s i mp 1e exercise would eliminate the strip mining of four million tons of coal or the equivalent energy potential of many oil cargoes carried by supertankers. However, he does realize that there would not be a reduction in total energy consumption unless 11 the manufacture of this more efficient equipment is economical in the consumption of energy resources 11 • 3 Here is a task REFERENCES 111 Physics in 1972 11 , American Institute of Physics publication, p. 35. 2 Drew McGarton, Winnipeg, speaking on C.B.C. radio broadcast, February l, 1973. 3 Milton D. Rubin, Waste not, want not in I . E. E. E. Spectrum, Vo 1 . 10, No. l, January, 1973, p. 70. 11 11 t[Are you kidding? - ed.] ► Britain now has to deal with about 18 million tons of domestic refuse per year. It can be used as raw material for the process pyrolysis in which the refuse is turned into fuel gas and light and heavy oils. 37 �HARWELL ATOMIC ENERGY RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT By Huw Dorkins r•emar•kah le pub Zication haD come into our hands. It is entitled ENQUIRY 1972 - The Science Journal of Harrow County School for Boys. This magazine is fu Uy professional - it contains a wide range of articles contributed by the students_, and about an equal nwnber written by experts. !l The author is fourteen and very interested in science, being a founder member of the Junior Scientific Society. He was responsible for the initial organization of the visit to Harwell on which this article is based. Harwell, near Didcot, is the site of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE), and recently a group of students from school was taken on a guided tour of th i s es tab 1 i s hme n t. I t i s s i t ua t e d on a site of approximately two square miles next to the Science Research Council and the NIMROD accelerator. The site is divided into two sections. First, the main site which is a large area of laboratories, accelerators, administrative buildings and a housing estate for those working there. Second, a smaller area which contains the three more modern reactors and their associated buildings. It would have been impossible, due to the restricted time available, to show us the whole of the AERE so, since we were mainly interested in the reactor assemblies, it was these that we were shown. Before describing the particular reactors that we saw I should explain how reactors work. We are delighted_, with permission_, to reproduce an article on Harwell written by a young man of fourteen. The original was illustrated with a photograph of the LIDO reactor, which for technical reasons we are unable to reproduce. The article is atypical_, in the sense that it Is bas·ically an essay on a "school visit"_, whereas many of the other contributions are really miniature research papers_, shawing considerab le flair. What makes the enterprise so successful? We suspect that it was set up as a sound business organization_, with a Business Manager (who is our contact)_, and a professionally orientated sales and advertising staff. Certainly, the workers have managed to corral some pretty impressive advertisers from areas of British business circles not particularly noted for their philanthropy. REACTORS All reactors depend on a process called FISSION; this is when an atomic particle, called a neutron, collides with an atom of a fissile material, usually an isotope of uranium. This atom becomes unstable, eventually splitting into two smaller atoms and emitting two or three new neutrons and a considerable amount of energy. Each of the two or three new neutrons. may then collide with more atoms of fissile material, causing the entire process to be repeated two or three times over. If this continued unchecked, so much energy would be produced that an explosion would occur and indeed this is what happens in an atomic bomb. Therefore in reactors it is extremely We hope the students are making a profit. Whether or not they are doing so, they can be assured that they are gaining invaluable experience which they will find has a market value. Harrow County School for Boys must be an extraordinary institution incked. - Editor 38 �important to control the fission. This is done by using control rods made of a substance which will absorb excess neutrons. The fission will only take place if the speed of the neutron is within a certain range, when it is known as a thermal neutron. However ' the neutrons emitted from a splitting atom are moving too fast and so they must be slowed down. This is done by using a moderator, in which the neutrons collide with the atoms of the moderator and are thereby slowed down. Last, but not least, a coolant is necessary to cool the reactor core and stop it from overheating and, in the case of power station reactors, to transfer heat for use in the production of electricity. Normally the core of the reactor consists of a block of the moderator into which fuel rods containing the fissile material and control rods may be placed and through which the coolant may pass. It is necessary to protect the reactor operators from any harmful radiation from the core, so a large biological shield of concrete is needed to surround it. Basically, there are two main types of reactor in use. First, the large scale type used for power production (such as Calder Hall) and second a smaller type for research. It is the research reactor that is to be found at Harwell. These reactors are used to develop new techniques for use at the former type of reactor, to make radioisotopes for medical and industrial use, and to carry out research work involving the use of high power radiation such as may be obtained from the reactor core. The reactors at Harwell are LIDO, DIDO, GLEEP, BEPO (which is now shut down), PLUTO and DAPHNE and we were shown the first four of these and some of the techniques and instruments that have been developed there. ber of a class of reactors, known as swimming pool reactors, that have the core immersed in a large tank of water which acts as moderator and coolant. The whole reactor is enclosed in a concrete tank but because the reactor is under eight metres of demineral ized water it is safe to have the top open. This is very interesting because one can see a pcwerful blue glow, known as 11 Cerenkov 11 radiation, in the water surrounding the ~eactor. The reactor has been in operation for sixteen years and its maximum power output is lOOkW. DIDO REACTOR DIDO, so named because the moderator used is heavy water or DDO, is much more powerful than LIDO. The reactor is of the conventional type, but all those who work on the reactor, and visitors, must put on special overshoes and pass through an air lock on entering the reactor. They are monitored by ~eans of a large scale Geiger counter on leaving. As I have mentioned, DIDO is comparatively powerful and has a normal power output of about 15 MW. As well as being the moderator the heavy water acts as the coolant dissipating this power. DIDO and its sister reactor, PLUTO, are both constructed in buildings where the pressure inside is lower than atmospheric. This is so that if a leak occurred, the movement of the air would be from the outside inwards and as a result no radioactive particles would be spread, thus avoiding external contamination. It is a member of the group known as 11 Materials testing reactors 1 ' and its purpose is to test various materials to study their structure and the effect of radiation on them. It also produces radioisotopes. GLEEP REACTOR GLEEP stands for 1tG raph i te Low Energy Experimental Pile" and is located on the main site. It was commissioned by the Atomic Energy Authority in 1947 making it the o 1des t pi 1e in Eu rope. It is used LIDO REACTOR This was the first reactor we visited and is called LIDO because it is a mem39 �dieted the possibility of this sale in a speech last February. Mr. Macdonald noted that although selling uranium at this time was a difficult assignment, Canada had succeeded in making a sales agreement with Spanish utility companies. The sale to Spain comes at a time when world uranium supply exceeds market demand. The order will be filled from the joint CanadaDenison stockpile and the general government uranium stockpile. Deliveries will take place over the period 1974 to 1977. The sale will provide a market for all of the uranium stockpiled under the Canada-Denison agreement of 1971. Tnder this agreement, the Government of Canada, through its crown corporation, Uranium Canada Limited (UCAN), agreed to acquire more than six million pounds of uranium oxide from Denison between 1971 and 1974 in order to stabilize employment and production at Denison's Elliot Lake mine in Northern Ontario until long-term contracts come into effect. The government's share of revenue from the sale to Spain will recover the $29.5 million of public funds spent in accumulating the stockpile. The stockpile is controlled jointly by Denison and UCAN, with Denison acting as sales agent. As only a portion of the general stockpile will be used to fill the order, UCAN will continue to oversee the disposition of this governmentcontrolled stockpile. In accordance with Canada's national policy on the sale of uranium, the uranium sold to Spain will be used for peaceful purposes only. This will be assured by the application of International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards. for measuring a property known as the Neutron cross-section 11 of various substances. Its maximum power level at present is 3 kW. GLEEP is an aircooled reactor with its core in a block of the moderator, graphite which is inside a cube of concrete with sides of six and one half metres. 11 BEPO REACTOR Although not as olci as GLEEP, BEPO was shut down in 1968 when most of the work beiPg done on it had been transferred to DIDO or PLUTO. As a result the fuel rods were removed and the channels for fuel and control rods and experimental rigs were filled with concrete. The reactcr cannot be completely dismantled because of the radioactivity of its graphite core which still remains. CONCLUSION We all enjoyed ourselves greatly, and the visit proved to be very interesting and valuable, giving us an insight into the operation.of the AERE and some of the problems that still remaineG to be solved in this field of research. I wou 1d 1 i ke to thank a 11 those at Harwell who contributed to the success of the visit and who helped me in writing this article. Uranium Sale To Spain OTTAWA:- Canada and Spain have signed a sales agreement for nearly $60 million, involving some nine million pounds of Canadian uranium oxide, to be used by Spanish electric utility companies for the generation of electric power, the President of Uranium Canada Limited, Jack Austin, announced. Mr. Austin is also Deputy Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources, and he signed the agreement in Madrid on behalf of the Government of Canada. The Hon. Donald S. Macdonald, Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources, pre40 �THE EFFECTIVE SHAPE OF A MOLECULE By E. Tyrrall In the treatment of the Kinetic Theory of Gases, molecules are assumed to be spherical in shape. This assumption usually troubles students of chemistry more than it troubles students of physics because, in their studies, the former acquire a detailed knowledge of molecular structure and molecular shape. Thus, in the introductory course in chemistry, the student soon learns to write the structure of the hydrogen chloride molecule as H-Cl and that of the carbon dioxide molecule as O=C=O. As he learns more of the electronic structure of molecules, it becomes clear that these molecules have the following approximate shapes: HCl this is not so in the case of either rotational energy or vibrational energy. Both these are quantised. We are only interested in rotational energy. Because rotational energy is quantised there is for each substance a temperature - characteristic of that substance below which the rotational degrees of freedom will be frozen, i.e. below which the molecules will not rotate. This temperature lies below room temperature for all substances so that the molecules of all polyatomic gases rotate freely at room temperature. In the case of hydrogen chloride the temperature at which molecular rotation becomes important is well below room temperature - it is, in fact, below 100° K. Now in this temperature region crystalline hydrogen chloride undergoes a transition, the higher temperature form having a cubic close-packed structure. This transition (at 98°K) is believed to be due to the assumption, by the hydrogen chloride molecule, of an effective spherical shape consequent upon the onset of molecular rotation. Thus, although the actual shapes of molecules vary, their effective shapes in the gas phase will be spherical provided that the temperature exceeds the characteristic temperature for molecular rotation. 0 c=J Scale models of these molecules can, in fact, be made using, amongst others, the Fischer-Stuart Models. Neither of these molecules is, then, spherical. It should, however, be remembered that in addition to translational motion, there are two other types of motion open to a molecule: rotary motion and vibratory motion. Thus th~ molecule of hydrogen chloride can rotate about its centre of gravity and, in so doing, demarcate a spherical region in space. In other words, although the actual shape of a molecule may be non-spherical, its effective shape will, by virtue of its rotational motion, be spherical. That this is so is confirmed in an interesting manner by studying the crystal structure of solid hydrogen chloride. However, before the results of this study can be properly appreciated, it is necessary to remember that, although the translational kinetic energy of a molecule can vary continuously, Mr. Ernest Tyrrall is Head of the Chemistry Division, Northern Ireland Polytechnic. A graduate of the University of Manchester, he carried out research in thermodynamics of high polymer systems with the late M. G. Evans. Before moving to Northern Ireland, he was a research chemist with Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd. He is a devoted swimmer and an established raconteur. 41 �PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY - ARE THEY SEPARABLE? By Margaret Hawton BIOLOGY BECOMES QUANTITATIVE excited. The transmission of the signal is much like the trans~ission of a signal in an electrical cable. All means of locomotion (walking, running, skiing, flying) are examples of the laws of mechanics. The size 1 imitations on animals with internal skeletons, the way the muscles work and the circulation of the blood are all just simple physical principles in action. There is a growing trend today to making biology quantitative. This doesn't just mean weighing and counting things. Our basic understanding of biological processes depends on a knowledge of physical science. A few examples wi 11 illustrate the point. The numbers of predators and their prey oscillate much like the position of a mass on a spring. Since the number of predators and their food supply (prey) are interrelated, the oscillations are 11 coupled 11 • Thus the predatorprey relationship is similar to the coupled harmonic oscillator of classical mechanics. Much of the elegant theory that has been developed over the last few hundred years for oscillators can be carried over to their biological counterparts. An electrical potential exists across the membrane of a cell. An analogy can be ~ade between the membrane and the electric circuit shown below. If the cell can transmit an THE SCIENCES ARE INDIVISIBLE If you think that you can understand biology (or even physical education) properly without first coming to grips with the laws of physics, you are mistaken. The sciences cannot be separated into neat little packages called biologyy chemistry, geology and physics. They are all part of a whole, and the boundaries that separate them are becowing increasingly unclear! Mrs. Hawton was born and educated in New Brunswick and has been teaching at Lakehead University since 1966. Last year she spent her sabbatical in the Biology Department at Carleton University~ Ottawa. OUTSIDE RESISTANCE CAPACITOR MICROORGANISMS IN PULP MILL EFFLUENTS - BATTERY B.C. Research is completing the initial $50,000 phase of a continuing contract for investigating the significance of microorganisms present in pulp and paper mill process streams and effluents. The Committee on Pollution Abatement Research of the Federal Government and the pulp and paper industry of Canada are financing this investigation. The results indicate limited growth in waste streams, but significant growth associated with raw materials and the effluents resulting from their initial processing. INSIDE OF NERVE impulse (e.g., a nerve cell), it is said to be 11 excitable 11 • There are many theories of the nature of the excitation, but a 11 i nvo 1ve phys i ca 1 princip1es. One recent suggestion is that the membrane contains two layers of dipoles (a dipole is a positive and negative charge of the same magnitude, separated by some distance) that flip over when the nerve is 42 �FUTURE CAREERS By Moc Ktytor 11 CAREERS 11 ARE OBSOLETE? Students who are considering going to university should, but seldom do, ask themselves "Why am I going?" It is absolutely astounding to discover how many students reply by saying 11 1 don 1 t know 11 • A student who makes this reply should perhaps delay attending university until he can identify a purpose. As in anything else, a lack of motive, understanding and enthusiasm can only result in a very poor job. The idea of ''career' may be obso 1e te. Dynamic changes in career patterns, the increasing rate at which vocational and professional skills become obsolete, new problems created by the accelerating process of urbanization and major shifts in social value suggest that more than a single career will soon be the order of the day for most workers. Already jobs are becoming obsolete at the rate of two and a half per cent per year. In twenty years, according to a Wheaton College sociologist, Zonda Linblade, sixty per cent of all jobs today will no longer exist. The familiar question put forward by teachers and parents, 11 What are you going to be?", will have to be re-phrased: 11 What wi11 be your first vocation?" No one can accurately predict which jobs will be part of the forty per cent still in existence twenty years from now, so flexibility seems a sensible attitude to develop. Ten years ago, an employer might have looked askance at a job application by someone who had occupied four different positions in ten years; nowadays, the same employer might prefer the application of such a person over another who had not moved at all, because the 11 mover 11 has proved that he is flexible and adaptable. There is a crisis of confidence in social and educational institutions. We often hear that there are no jobs for university graduates, or that the number of jobs is decreasing. Let us look at it another way. What does the new university graduate have to offer? Furthermore, does the university exist to train people for jobs? 1 GRADUATES FLOUNDER ABOUT What is even more astounding is that when many young men and women finally graduate from university they are still in a complete fog, and are very quick to criticize everyone and anyone about not being able to find a job. My question is - 11 What do you have to offer? 11 This is the most important question for all graduates. A university gives every member the opportunity of becoming a "quality person". What I mean is that one is encouraged toward achieving a high standard of intellectual excellence, how to think and understand, how to express ideas with clarity, how to develop solutions to the increasingly complex problems which we all must cope with. Most importantly, a student should develop an awareness of reality of self and others. As far as specific training for a job is concerned, it is unlikely that a university will offer much. However, there is the opportunity to develop a unique human skill that is imperative to be successful in any career; that is the ability to grasp quickly, understand and communicate. The 43 �university, in a phrase, trains to get trained! If one could achieve only part of the above out of a university education, and then ask oneself the question, 11 What do you have to offer? 11 , there is 1 ittle doubt that the answer would be considerably more positive than the usual 11 I don I t know 11 • for which a local, regional or national shortage exists and is expected to continue. A special employer reimbursement formula is part of the new program whereby employers will receive, from the federal government, fifty per cent of the trainee's wages during the first half of the training period and twenty-five per cent during the second half. All employers not financed primarily by tax revenues, including non-profit private agencies, are eligible for participation in the new program. It is also open to public employers, either government owned or controlled, who are financed mainly by public fees or sales, i.e. public transportation companies, provincial hydro or telephone companies, and hospitals which are not wholly owned, staffed and funded by provincial governments. The average amount of training time in which the federal government will participate financially with employers is expected to be about five months. Maximum reimbursement will be $118 per week per trainee. Training periods may range in duration from six to fifty-two weeks and will be carefully determined in relation to the complexity and number of skills to be taught, prior experience or training of the trainees, and expected productivity of trainees at various stages of training. Trainees will be screened as to their suitability for training in a particular occupation by Canada Manpower Centre officers. They will be referred to the employer for final selection. To qualify for training, trainees must be 11 adults 11 , that is, one year beyond the school leaving age of the province where they reside. They must also have been unemployed or on layoff for one week. ■ Anew manpower training initiative specially designed to alleviate regional and national shortages of skilled workers and provide additional job opportunities for unemployed workers was announced by the Hon. Robert Andras, Minister of Manpower and Immigration. As a continuing element of the federal Manpower Industrial Training Program, Training on the Job for Skill Shortages is now offered to employers to encourage the hiring and training of workers for hard-to-fill occupations. As indicated by the Statistics Canada Job Vacancy Survey and by the number of unfilled job vacancies at Canada Manpower Centres across the country, employers are having difficulty finding fully qualified workers to fill available jobs. The new program wi 11 greatly improve Canada 1 s effectiveness in matching labour demand and supply across Canada, Mr. Andras stated. He added that, 11 Many of our workers will now have the opportunity for training and employment in occupations for which they would not otherwise qualify and employers will not have to lose production and profits caused by skill bottlenecks. In conjunction with the provinces, the Department of Manpower and Immigration will assist employers in developing training projects that will give new workers skills to perform jobs 11 11 11 44 �Moe Ktytor Margaret Hawton "flexibility seems a sensible attitude to develop" "The sciences cannot be separated into neat little packages" Mrs Black and offspring in the Institute. "Travel can be a broadening experience to be shared with students" �HIGH SCHOOL .. DROP OUTS ! 11 By Maurice G. Black A SABBATICAL IN MEXICO A sabbatica1 leave from teaching for one year! What an opportunity to travel with no dead1 ines to meet! After a combined total of twenty nine years of teaching experience, both my wife Jackie and I were ready for a change of pace. We ended up in a school of art in Mexico, taking courses for six days a week and pounding out my thesis for the degree of Master of Fine Arts. Having spent the first five months of the sabbatical trailering through thirty three states of the eastern U.S.A., we were ready to rest our wheels for a time. While our ten year old son Earl completed his grade five at the Escuela Bilingue in San Miguel de Allende, Jackie and I enrolled in the Art school for two semesters. Institute Allende is an internationally known and recognized art school incorporated with the University of Guanajuato, Mexico. The colonial beauty of the town, the availability of tntriguing subject matter and the ideal climate with perpetual sunshine provided a conducive atmosphere for a concentrated study of the arts. Gallery openings once a week by artists of varying talent; excellent live entertainment at the local theatre; weekly swims at the ~earby hot pools; daily visits with fellow trailerites; watching various native fiestas -we squeezed in all these besides keeping up our numerous school projects. guide books and travellers we met along the way. Exaggerated tales led us almost to believe that Mexico was a vast area of desert and mountains populated by thieves and beggars. The water was unfit to drink; the food was guaranteed to make you ill. During our eight month stay in Mexico we discovered how false and distorted these accounts were. We found Mexico to be a land of surprises geographically, populated by people who were friendly and helpful. An abundance of fresh fruit, vegetables and meat enabled us often to eat better quality for much less money than we spend on food in Thunder Bay. We found on many occasions during our travels, that third-hand information is certainly no substitute for first hand experience. TWO WAY COMMUNICATION The three month crash course in Spanish that we pursued at the Institute in San Miguel, Mexico, helped us immensely to communicate with Mexican people we met on our travels. Mexican families pursuing various craft skills described their work in Spanish and were quite interested in finding out more about Canada - the 'land of ice and snow'! Everywhere we stopped to ask directions, to obtain supplies, to bargain for craft work or simply to talk to the people, we were treated with gracious courtesy. In every case the Mexican people were most willing to help us extend our limited Spanish vocabulary and to correct us in the pronunciation of difficult words. Once a bond of understanding had been established, that I was a teacher photographing Mexican life to show Canadian ildren, most Mexicans became willing subjects for the camera. Written and oral accounts regarding the so-called dishonesty, filth and SEEING FOR OURSELVES During the nine month period that we spent in Mexico, we drove more than eight thousand miles of highway and dirt roads. My family and I had spent months doing spare time research on Mexico and its people before we crossed its borders in early December. We had read and listened to many disturbing, but often conflicting reports from 46 �We explored the archeologica1 ruins of Mitla and Monte Alban and toured the museums in Mexico Ci Tuxtla Gutierrez and Oaxaca to learn more of this amazing Aztec civilization. The floating gardens of Xochimilco ... the Mexican Foklorico ballet ... the coppersmiths of Santa Maria del Cobre ... famous Oaxaca pottery ... historic Vera Cruz ... colourful fiestas . : . bul 1fights ... each one provided a unique and not-to-be-forgotten experience for us. laziness of the Mexican people peP sc readily arouse our indignation and desire to disprove such unwarranted prejudice. HIGHLIGHTS To select highlights from this nine month adventure is difficult. My son's choice was the expedition to the volcano of Paracutin which developed in a cornfield and erupted in 1943. After reaching the departure point, a rather remote village at the end of a rough dirt road, we hired a guide and horses for the ninety minute ride to the lava beds. Nature's phenomena were awesome, since molten lava had flowed through a village leaving portions of a church and remnants of homes standing but embedded. My wife was enamoured with the sea coast of the Pacific. Life evolved in a leisurely fashion for the natives who spread large nets once every two days to obtain enough fish for their needs. Coffee beans, shrimp, and an abundance of vegetables and tropical fruit were available at low cost. Here was an ideal site in which to park our trailer where we could read, relax and think undisturbed, with miles of uninhabited sunny beaches on which to wander. The costumed Indians frequenting the town of San Cristobal intrigued me. This mountain town located only sixty miles or so from the Guatemalan border is sufficiently remote to be yet unaffected by tourism. Our strange fashion of dress and white skin attracted considerable attention since these natives continue to wear tribal costumes that have not changed in design for many centuries. After first allowing some of the shy yet fascinated young men to view their friends through my camera view finder, I was permitted the opportunity of photographing them. IT 1 S HARD TO RE-ADAPT Since arriving home, we have been caught up in the bustling 11 rat race 11 which we left over one year ago. Oddly enough it is the cultural shock of a return to civilization to which we had difficulty adapting! Our future holiday plans include return trips to Mexico, especially the Yucatan peninsula which could not be included on our sabbatical itinerary. We feel that travel can be a broadening experience to be shared with students and as such deserves valid consideration by those contemplating sabbatical leave. The opportunity to observe other educational systems in operation and to exchange views with teachers in areas removed from ours makes the granting of sabbatical leaves valuable in that it enriches those who have the opportunity to communicate their heightened experiences to the next generation. Finally, the sense of achievement gained through furthering one 1 s education is in itself a most rewarding experience. Maurice graduated from Lakehead University in 1965. Jacqueline graduated from Lakehead University in 1969. Ed. - People like the Blacks are Canada 1 s most effective ambassadors. 47 �SO YOU WANT TO BE A NURSE? By Made 1 in e Hook i ngs A KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE IS NECESSARY ber of the heart, the atrium, is a small group of cells somewhat different from the other cells forming ~he heart tissues. This microscopic island of cells possesses an innate ability to send out electrical impulses that stimulate the heart muscle to contract. Although scientists are yet to unravel how this group of cells, called a node, actually accomplishes this unusual and interesting phenomenon, there is ample scientific data establishing that it is the 11 pace-setter 11 or 11 pace-maker 11 of cardiac rhythm. It sets the rate at which each individual's heart will beat throughout his entire life. When it ceases to emit these electrical charges, the life of the organism ends. Why, we might ask, is science necessary in learning to care for the sick? Because the central concern of nursing is to serve Man, then many of his attributes must be understood if this service is to be skillfully performed. To gain knowledge of this really unique being, a nurse will need to know about both his physical and emotional nature. THE HUMAN PUMP One of the most efficient and enduring pumps ever conceived is the heart. This pump beats approximately seventy times per minute as long as a person 1 ives. Believe it or not, by eighty years of age, the heart will have contracted over a tr i 11 ion t i mes . I t is very doubt ful whether any man-made apparatus could possess such lasting properties. The heart, besides its marvellous ability to function continuously, has a number of other interesting and unique qualities. Each time this pump works, it jettisons out into the blood vessels from each of its two chambers about seventy to one-hundred and forty milliliters of blood. In the athlete this amount can rise as high as ' two-hundred milliliters from each chamber. This is a large output indeed, when one considers that the human heart is roughly the size of a man's fist. THE EFFECT OF THE EMOTIONS As a censor of the individual 1 s environment, the nervous system can alter the established rhythm of heart beat. This added control is a most salient factor in preparing the body for an emergency occurrence, such as some external danger or an illness. Also, the deepest emotions are voiced in the language of the heart, and while happiness is 11 hea rt·fe l t sorrow is heartbreak With 11 11 success, one is heartened and with disappointment, 11 heartsick 11 • The heart is the tissue of life, governed by its own innate rhythm, nervous mechanisms and other physiological factors. 11 11 , 11 • THE RED RI VER THE RHYTHM OF LIFE Like any other pump, the heart must have fluid to perform normally. In the human body, a very remarkable fluid serves this purpose - The Red River - blood. Should this fluid volume be decreased by about twothirds of its normal complement, the heart would no longer pump. This principle also holds when the fluid volume, over a period of time, exceeds At about the tenth day of embryonic growth, a very minute package of bright red tissue begins to pulsate. This tissue represents what will in time become a four-chambered heart. How did this small bit of tissue begin to pulsate? Located in what will become the upper right cham48 �its normal amount. Blood is a red, viscid, salty fluid that constantly bathes every cell of an organism. Should an artery become blocked, even for a few minutes, the cells supplied by this vessel would commence to degenerate or break down. For example, if the flow of this river to the brain were to be stopped for four minutes, many of these all important cells would die. One unique quality of blood is its special ability to transport food and oxygen to all parts of the body; it is also the body's housekeeper. The body cells are extremely active miniature chemical factories, and where there are factories there is usually waste. In this case organic acids, carbon dioxide and heat are some of the waste products. The Blood is the River of Life. Death is only minutes away should it cease to flow. many of us indulge in food high in animal fats. Once an overabundance of these fats enters the circulatory system, they can, over a period of years, cause untold damage to arteries of the organism. Of special significance is· the damage to the vital arteries that carry food and oxygen to the heart itself. What are these changes that occur? Fats, in excessive amounts, invade the walls of arteries and this over a period of years leads to a narrowing of lumens (or tubes). This finally results in occlusion or blocking of the vessels, especially those that supply the heart muscle. With complete occlusion, the individual has what is commonly called 11 a heart attack 11 • IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING The foregoing discussion has indicated some of the scientific knowledge from which nursing concepts can be drawn. When a patient has an enlarged heart, the manner of positioning, to ensure the greatest expansion of the thorax, is accomplished through the application of the nurse's knowledge of science. When patients move in bed, they are inclined to hold their breath. In heart disease, this can be dangerous, even fatal. As an individual holds his breath, pressure builds up in the thorax inhibiting blood from flowing into the heart. When he breathes again, changing the pressure, a great rush of blood enters the heart, causing stretching that can, in turn, cause cardiac arrest. This is perhaps one reason why persons with heart disease can die suddenly. The nurse can, because of her acquired knowledge, assist patients to understand the danger of holding their breath when performing various activities. As a nurse, one must look scientifically at all the components that represent Man, and gain a relatively comprehensive understanding of the river - our blood - its STRESS - THE VILLIAN Statistics reveal that about half the yearly deaths are attributable to heart disease. Medical literature lists many reasons for heart disease, but certainly an overall cause, in the opinion of the famous Montreal scientist, Hans Selye, is stress. Temporarily, stress marshals the body to ward off impending danger. It prepares the body to fight, for it is a survival mechanism of life. However, this defense mechanism can harm the heart, blood vessels or other body organs. When an individual 1 s body is continuously subjected - for long periods to a stress state, irreversible harm results. Nurses observe the results of stress every day, as they work with patients with stomach ulcers, high blood pressure, heart disease and other bodily ills. ARE FATS CULPABLE? On the North American continent 49 �point, or 27 distinct such lines passing through the cube. Consider one of these lines. The two planes containing this line and perpendicular to the faces divide the cube into four quadrants. Choose one of these quadrants and call it Each 2 x2 xl brick that intersects A will intersect it in 1 2, or 4 unit cubes. Those that meet' A in 1 unit cube are precisely those bricks pierced by the line. Since A contains an even number of unit cubes, there must be an even number of bricks that meet A in 1 cube. Thus, there are an even number of blocks that are pierced by the line. It requires then 54 bricks if each line is to pierce at least one (and hence 2) bricks. However, a 4 11 x4 11 x4 11 cube contains only 16 bricks. Therefore, there is at least one (in fact 14) lines that don t pierce any of the bricks. The rod should be passed along one of these lines. Consider an nxnxn cube to be constructed as described above. Can you show, using an argument as above, that if n 3/4 < 2.J(n-1) 2 , there is at least one way to pass a rod through the cube without piercing any bricks? What is the largest value of n for which the argument works? sources, i ls channe 1s and its aclua I composition. One must acquire a detailed knowledge of the engine that makes blood flow through these channels - the heart. One must know what the implications are when this pump breaks down or wears out, what parts can be replaced. With this kind of scientific background the nurse then has the facts in her possession with which to truly serve that unique organism we call Man. Ms. M. Bookings is presently on the faculty of the Lakehead University School of Nursing teaching MedicalSurgical Nursing. She hails from the Eastern Provinces where she received her basic education. Following her post-graduate work at McGill University in Montreal she has taught in various schools of nursing in and around the Toronto area. She brings to her present appointment a depth of experience and knowledge. by J. H. M. Whitfield A contractor wishes to build a 411 x4 11 x4 11 solid cubical pillar out of 2 x2 x1 bricks. The faces of the bricks are parallel to the faces of the cube, but they need not all lie flat. Also he wishes to have a thin rod pass through the pillar without passing through any of the bricks. Can he do it? Sure! Divide the cube into unit cubes. This gives a 4'~4 grid on each face. If a rod passes through the cube in the manner described, it will intersect the face at a grid point. There are 9 lines perpendicular to each face, each intersecting it at a grid 11 11 11 1 A BRICK PROBLEM 11 11 A. 11 PUZZLE ??? THERE ARE 3 CANNIBALS AND 3 MISSIONARIES. THEY HAVE TO GET ACROSS A RIVER INFESTED WITH CROCODILES. THE BOAT HOLDS ONLY TWO PEOPLE. IF AT ANY TIME THE MISSIONARIES ARE OUTNUMBERED, THEY WILL BE EATEN. GET EVERYONE ACROSS THE RIVER. 11 (swimming is out!) - - 50 John MCLaren �INTERVIEW WITH THE LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY STOREKEEPER= Bert Harding IS TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE MORE IMPORTANT THAN SYSTEM MANAGEMENT? Us: analy0 ts and that; k /nd <ij' thing - but I must add Uwl my own view of accounling at the Departmental level is that any intelligent person can do it. Did you read the first Caret? Bert: No, not all of it. I suppose I have read about half of the articles. Us: Bert: Yes, as far as the Department is concerned, there is no need to get too deeply involved in the accounting procedures. In fact, you want it as simple as possible. What the Department needs to know is how much money we have, how much we have committed to date and roughly where it has gone. Well~ did you read the interview with Ken Sumpter? What we ~re tryin~ to do is to produce ui every 1,ssue an interview with somebody like yourself so that the students in high school who read it have some idea of what kind of jobs we do around the University. We also want to bring out the personalities and interests of the people who work in the Faculty of Science. I honestly don't know what your job is: I just see you there surrounded by glassware and chemicals. Can you tell our read~rs what your job really cons1,sts of? Us: Bert: Yes. I send in the records to the Chairman regularly, as a report, which tells him more or less where we stand. Us: Bert: Yes. Well, essentially, I am storekeeper for the Chemistry Department. Us: How did you get into the job? Bert: A~ w 11 as passing my techni7 diploma course, I also cians had some storekeeping experience; but I would say that on the whole my skills are in chemical technology rather than in business. I use my technical knowledge in what we might call stores systems - that is, understanding the specifications and properties of chemicals and equipment for the benefit of the other technicians and the professors. For example, they expect me to know whether a particular piece of equipment will do the job they want it to do. Us: So you just keep a list of the running expenses? Do you find that more pressures ~om~ on you when the University 1,s 1,n a state of budgetary crisis? Who decides what is necessary spending and what is just frills and can perhaps be delayed for a while - do you? Bert: I decide, or at least make recommendations, as to what we need and what I think our priorities are; the final decision is, of course, that of the Chairman, Dr. I. M. Hoodless. Us: Yes~ well he carries the final responsibi U ty. Bert: Other input also comes from the faculty members who are in charge of the various courses, and they are often faced with the problem of what is really necessary to run their own courses, and how they relate to all other courses. Us: Where did you get your training? Bert: The Western Ontario Institute of Technology in Windsor. Well~ I have learnt something already. I would have thought that you would have had to have all kinds of business courses such as accounting~ systems Us: 51 I think we ought to get across to our readers the fact there were Institutes of Technology �available, then we send out tenders ... othm:) than Nyerson long bcj'or)e the present community colleges were formed. Us: Bert: Yes, there were four others including the Institute at Windsor which has always been one of the best Institutes in Canada. I was there for three years ... Us: Did you go there before it became a community college? Us: Bert: Yes. Us: Most people think that Ryerson was the only Institute that predated the colleges. Bert: Ryerson is extremely well known, perhaps because of its size. But Windsor has always been competitive and graduates from Windsor always have the offer of several jobs each. Windsor produced its first graduating class in 1961, so it preceded the colleges by about five years, at least. Us: What are your main problems in storekeeping - apart from finding forty-five gallon drums for the Editor of Caret? Alright~ let's call it a situation ... Bert: ... is to obtain the maximum amount of equipment for the minimum amount of capital, sometimes in a very critical situation. Us: This is no criticism of Purchasing~ but do you find that you really know more about the teehnical specifications than they do and in fact it is more efficient . . . quicker and mor•e accurate for you to send out the tenders yourself? You save on one step in the chain. Bert: Right. They are very helpful. In fact, sometimes Purchasing will have a problem connected with another Department and they will phone me for information on a specification and how a company's product stands up to both its specification and to the wear and tear of use in the laboratory. Manufacturers' claims and performance do not always match! Some other departments are not so technically orientated as those in the Faculty of Science. Bert: I suppose the main problem, although I don't consider it a problem, more of a challenge ... Us: Do you do that or ... ? Bert: No, I do it most of the time. Occasionally, I will use the assistance of the Purchasing Department, which is excellent, but generally they are very busy. WASTE NOT, WANT NOT Us: How do you do that? Do you talk to salesmen or do you go out on tender? Bert: I talk quite a lot with salesmen in person or on the telephone. Perhaps I interview them rather than the other way round! I get ideas of what I want and then discuss with various companies how their particular equipment operates to see if it comes up to my ideas of what it ought to do for the Department and whether the claims are exaggerated. When I know exactly what is available, we write specifications which are based on a compromise between what we would like and what is When I was in schooZ 3 more years ago than I care to remember 3 all I can remember about chemistry labs is that there was a great tendency to use too much. 11 Don I t use a gram when a kilogram will dd 1 seemed to be the motto. Do you have any problem in that way? Bert: Yes, especially at the first year level. When there are a hundred or two hundred students doing the same laboratory, the technicians have a terrible problem in guessing how much of the reagents they need to prepare. In some laboratories where the students are particularly sloppy, we may have to 52 �prepare two or three times as much of a solution as is really necessary, and often they will run short in the middle of a lab period which causes a great panic - but the students have only themselves to blame. Unfortunately the innocent suffer with the guilty. Us: Bert: The solution is reasonably simple. ·As a means of relaxation. When I leave the door of the University, I enter a different sphere, and relax from the problems that I may have encountered at work. Similarly when I come to the University to work, I leave my home and hobby problems behind! This system affords greater use of my mental capacities and replaces mental tension with preoccupation. Have you ever suggested to the professors that they fine the students if they use too much? Bert: No, we have never taken that approach. By the second year, the students are more lab orientated and we have less trouble. Us: Us: Bert: I've never been in camp at thirty below, but I have done a great deal of outdoors work including winter camping in Northwestern Ontario. Do you have to separate the requirements of teaching and research? Bert: Yes, but much of the research equipment is ordered by individual professors out of their research grants. Us: Do you go camping out in the bush at thirty below? Us: What sort of ages are the boys? Bert: Well, we run programmes here for boys from ages eight to twenty-three. Do you have any problems keeping track of research equipment? Finding out who's got it ... whether undergraduate equipment has wandered into some professor's research lab~ for instance? Us: Is the scout movement growing or decrieasing? Bert: At the present time, unfortunately, membership is decreasing. Bert: There are some small problems, but the real problem seems to be more the mental attitude of the individual. Us: What is the problem? Bert: There are a number of factors. Us: Does the increase in social self-discipline play a pa1 t? 1 SCOUTING Bert: Yes, this is one of the bigger social problems. Us: Us: To complete the profile~ what do you do in your spare time? I know what you do in your spare time ... could you tell the readers? Bert: Very, very slight. We obviously have to have some degree of discipline, but we are far from being a military force or having a militaristic philosophy. Bert: Well, I like to be busy, active all day. Perhaps I am more physically active in the evenings. As well as indulging my interest in radio and electronics, I spend a great deal of time with the Boy Scouts' Association. Us: Us: Is there anything I have NOT asked you that you would like to tell our readers? A SOURCE OF EQUIPMENT AND TECHNICAL HELP What's your position in the organization? Bert: At the present time, I am on the Executive Committee of the District Council . Us: Is there any military content in scouting? Bert: Well ... getting back to the store, it might be interesting to note that my store on the second floor of the Science How do you find enough time to do that? 53 �Building has the largest stock of scientific materials and equipment in Northwestern Ontario. Not only do we lend equipment out to other Departments in the University, we also lend to various high schools and in particular to students at the high school level who are working on projects for the Science Fair. Such projects involve using apparatus and chemicals which are not available in the high schools. It gives me great pleasure, both personally and on behalf of the University, that we can provide this service to assist the students to develop their knowledge and skills. Us: New Brunswick and so is Utopia, Sugarloaf Mountain, both Upper and Lower California and even Loch Lomond. These are some of the fourteenthousand names of populated areas and natural features 1 isted in a new edition of the Gazetteer of Canada for New Brunswick, published for the Canadian Permanent Committee on Geographical Names by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. The last edition, issued in 1956, contained only seven-thousand names. The bilingual gazetteer includes a glossary of terms, a map of New Brunswick showing counties and parishes, the exact geographical position of each place and a map with instructions on how to obtain maps of regions within the province on a scale of 1 :50,000. Other exotic place names found in the province are: Push and be Damned Rapids, Pull and Be Damned Island, Sl ingdung Brook, Spit Shoal, Skull Island, Hells Kitchen (a ravine), Left Hand Leg (a bay), and The Old Sow (whirlpools). New Brunswick has thirty-three Mud Lakes, four Devils Elbows (river bends), ten Dead Brooks, a Five Fathom Hole (a cove), the Kouchibouguac River and Scoodawabscook Bend. And there are some lyrical names as well: Diffin Heath_ Frosty Hollow, Little Dipper Harbour, Rasberry Cove, Strawberry Marsh and Woodpecker Hall. The Gazetteer is one of the most advanced in the world. Committee staff went into the field interviewing, checking spellings and verifying geographical features over a two-year period. Up to this point, names in gazetteers have usually been drawn from maps and records. It has been found, however, that field studies result in an increase of one-hundred percent in the stock of names. They also reveal an inaccuracy rate of twenty percent in documents and maps already printed. The Gazetteer of New Brunswick is available from Information Canada for $4.00. II Too right. A lad came to me for some phosphor which he wanted to use for a Science Fair project. I was able to give him ten different ones, which was I think beyond his wildest expectations. But we have got to be careful that such requests don't become too great in volume for us to handle. They go back to school and show all their mates who then descend on us in droves! But I suppose that's a good thing for the University in the long run. Bert: Yes, I like them to come to us looking for information and ideas. Us: You know the National Science Fair is going to be here this surroner? Bert: Yes. I 1 m looking forward to it very much. I have been involved in the Science Fairs in small ways in the years past, and it will be interesting and exciting to see what the rest of the country has to offer. Us: Thank you very much. II INFORMATION * CANADA Skunk Hollow, Deadman's Ledge, Squirrel Jump Gulch, Horseback Ridge. Names out of the American West? No, they're all in 54 �THIN SECTIONS By R. L. Bennett 4. Mounting the slide 5. Cutting off the mounted slab 6. Thinning down to transparency 7. Hand finishing to petrological WHAT A THIN SECTION IS - AND WHY One of the most striking natural substances seen through a polarizing microscope is a 11 thin section" of rock. A thin section is a sliver of rock .03 mm. thick on a glass slide with a protective glass cover slip. The purpose of the thin section is to examine the crystalline structure of rock, to determine to which category it belongs - igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. Its geological interest, as in stratigraphy, to help in the making of a geological map, or in the identification of a rock type for economic purposes, say as an aggregate for concrete, or to see whether the rock texture is suitable as a foundation for a dam or similar huge engineering project. The name given to the general study is Petrology, which is derived from the greek Petros, rock and ology - the study of. The first person to think of a method of examining the internal structure of a rock was William Nicol, a Scottish Geologist:* he had a lapidary do the work for him, (this was in 1827). He discovered or invented the Nicol prism, a piece of Iceland spar (Ca C03) cut in such a way as to give polarized light. All his work was done purely by hand. The modern method of making a thin section is a comparatively simple mechanized technique, only the last operation being done by hand. 8. Stage One. -The first rough cut: This is done with a 11 cut-off machine 11 equipped with a diamond impregnated cutting blade, which is a round disc of metal of something over a foot diameter having a diamond-charged edge al ittle thicker than the blade itself. This is to prevent the blade from jamming in the cut, and also allows the coolant fluid to wash away the rock powder. The procedure is to have the rock firmly clamped and to have a smooth easy feed against the blade to ensure a smooth clean, cut surface. The rock slab should be about l/8 11 x 1/4 11 the precise size depending on its texture. Stage Two. - 3. Cutting to size for glass slide Having examined the cut surface and selected the area required for the thin section, the slab is marked with a pencil or ink marker, and is cut by a hand or a trim saw. The finished slab should fit on a slide, the edges not overlapping the slide as this would cause difficulties in later stages. ALL THE DETAILS 1. 2. thickness Mounting the cover slip Stage Three. Stages. - The first rough cut Cutting to size for glass slide Grinding to mount on the slide The slab is now ground with 400 carborundum and water on a lapping machine until all the cut marks are out and the surface is flat with even texture, and then further ground on plate glass with 600 or *Mr. Bennett is himself an undoubted Scot! - Ed. 55 Grinding to mount on the slide: �l ,000 grit carborundum to ensure a smooth surface. This is a very important stage. If there are pits in the surface air bubbles wi11 be trapped and that part of the section could be lost during the final stage of grinding. a rate suitable for the texture of the rock. In an a 1ternate technique, the slide is machined by means of a diamond impregnated buff which grinds the slabs down to a set thickness. Stage Six. Stage Four. - -Thinning down to transparency: Mounting on the slide: The now transparent section of rock is removed from the cut off machine and fitted to a similar machine equipped with a diamond buff. The slide is held by a vacuum chuck on a hand operated arm. With the aid of a microthreaded lathe slide, the rock is moved into the buff, and 2 to 4 thousands of an inch is removed at each forward movement. This continues until the slab is thin enough to examine through the microscope. It will be observed that under polarized light the colours given by the quartz, Feldspar crystals will be of a green blue red orange hue. The section should now be washed and hand finished on the glass plate, with 600 carborundum. The slab, having been washed clean, is placed fine ground surface upward on a hot plate at a temperature of about 150°c. This is not a critical temperature but a handy one to work on. A glass slide is cleaned and laid on the hot plate. The adhesive material used is a Thermo plastic under the listing of Lakeside 70. It has very great adhesive powers and a refractive index of 1 .52 which is very important in the determination of the Feldspar group of various igneous rocks. The adherence of the slab to the slide is a matter of melting a small amount of the adhesive on the slide and the slab surface, putting the two surfaces together and pressing out the air bubbles, at the same time centering the rock slab on the slide. Stage Seven. -Handing finishing to petrological thi~kness: Finally, the last touch is added by hand - grinding. As the art of making a thin section of rock is to retain the outside of original slab so as it can be compared against the rock cut, it is advisable not to use a circular movement on the glass. This is apt to give rise to a rounded thin section. The grinding movement should be elongated, with not too firm pressure of the finger on the back of the slide. Depending on the texture which in turn governs the hardness, the final grinding should take a few minutes to produce the standard 11 first order 11 grey to the quartz and Feldspar. A number or mark is scratched on the back of the slide for further identification, should it need to be catalogued for teaching purposes. Stage Five. Cutting off the mounted slab: The now mounted slab is reduced to its proper thickness. The fir:t stage is to cut off the slab with a fine diamond impregnated blade, usually about 511 in diameter and about .012 thick with a speed of 2,000 r.p.m. The slide is held in place by a vacuum chuck, and the feed is advanced by hand at 56 �Stage Eight. - _□ ~Hugh Mill~r, to his dying day, ~ns1sted that nothing oryanic lived 1n the north of Scotland previous to the deposition of the Old Hed conglomerate. The Old Red conglomerate was to him the fossiliferous base in the north He knew and acknowledged the Silurians of the south of Scotland; but he argued that Durness limestone was of Old Red age. Professor Nicol said it was of mountain limestone. Sir Roderick Murchison has classed it Silurian. When Hugh Miller was in Orkney he saw the Old Reg conglomerate at Stromness, and followed the fossiliferous rocks along the sea-shore upwards, until he found a fossil bone, which he termed the 'Nail', and he counted how many feet this 'nail I was above the Old Red conglomerate. He considered this 'nail I the oldest bone in Scotland. So he said. He knew of none older at that time. The Durness fossils being all shells and molluscous animal remains, Hugh probably thought that nothing of a bony nature existed in Scotland older than his Stromness nail And this bone was a fish remain, many hundred feet above the Old conglomerate. But what would Hugh have thought of fish underlying Old Red conglomerate? Fish remains older than conglomerate? Alas, poor Hugh! such is actually the case. The other day I turned up and brought home with me to Thurso the remains of fish that had lain buried below the Old Red conglomerate! But Hugh had seen the 1 Base 1 in many places and preferred retaining the old opinion. I believe the opinion entertained by our highest geologists is that there is Old Red conglomerate of many ages; whereas Hugh Miller considered it as of one age - one great formation. He says that it extends from the Grampians to Orkney, and from Peterhead to the Western Isles; that it lies in a continuous stratum of variable thickness; and that no fish lived then in what is now Scotland. A great mi stake! □ Mounting the cover slip: The surface mounting medium is removed, by using a razor blade or similar instrument, the s1 ide is cleaned off with acetone, chloroform or alcohol. A glass cover slip is cleaned and covered with Canada Balsam enough to cover the slip. This is placed on the hot plate and the balsam allowed to heat, driving off the solvents. It is not necessary to overheat the balsam, which is ready for use when all the air bubbles are out, at which time the rock slide is reversed onto the balsam, i.e. rock section downward. It is then 1 ifted clear off the hot plate and pressed down to remove the air bubbles, making sure the cover slip is evenly down on the rock section and centred on the slide. The surplus balsam is cleaned off by immersing the slide in acetone for a few minutes, and subsequently wiping with a tissue, the process is repeated in chloroform, the slide is wiped clean, washed in warm detergent water and dried. 1 1 • Dear Reader, that is the basics of how a thin section of rock is made - believe me, I have made all sorts. There are many papers and chapters in geological books written on the subject, but, in my view, there is only one way to learn the technique - the more you make, the better the results! Mr. R. L. Bennett came to Lakehead University in 1.96? from Edinburgh University where he was the Chief Technician of the .Department of Geology. He was the founder and first President of the Scottish Mineral and Lapidary Society, the first to be farmed in Great Britain. He enjoys fly fishing and relaxing in his cottage on the Karn River, but regards hunting as a pastime he can do without. 57 �HOW MAY EXPANSION By TEACHERS OF THEIR KEEP IN TOUCH WITH THE SUBJECT? J. S. Griffith Both school and university teachers are faced with the knowledge explosion. Subjects at one time the preserve of university courses are moving into the school curriculum, graduate level subjects are moving into undergraduate level courses. New facts and methods of approach are available. Here I will concentrate on one subject area, but many of the suggestions are applicable to other disciplines. The teacher should use the courses he teaches as an avenue to creative activity. Books, journals and articles should be scanned for lively examples and applications while dissatisfaction with a textbook may be turned into the writing of substitute units and their existence (and the dissatisfaction) brought to the attention of other teachers by publication in Caret or in the Ontario Mathematics Gazette. Cooperation with other teachers in interdepartmental courses and projects, and advice of interested students in competitive opportunities like the Gelfand Club and the various Mathematics Contests will aid in stimulating thought and in keeping abreast of the tide. Organization of a mathematics club with invited talks from visitors (any of us at Lakehead are willing to come), as well as by teachers and advanced students on their independent reading (for example historical development of a certain topic), problem sessions together with visits to the university 1 s periodic seminars (ask to be put on our mailing list) will help, as wi11 the reading of expository books and articles. Again there are two publications that are willing to publish book reviews and reports on articles you find valuable. Attendance at (or organization of) development days or summer institutes will aid you and your fellow teachers. If you think we can help, why not ask? Contribution of articles to the Ontario Mathematics Gazette is another avenue to be explored. We want more articles from practising teachers, especially from those at the elementary level, and the editors are helpful and understanding! All these suggestions require time, motivation and opportunity. I hope that Caret and the Gazette offer some stimulus. There are presumably boards, provincial and federal sources that support investigations into curriculum reform and innovation, staff training, and experimental courses. Why not tell others of the avenues you are aware of by using the embryo 'Letters' section of the Gazette? The establishment of an individual program of study and exploration will help keep you active. Resolve to read through at least one journal or book a week. Each departmental head should encourage junior members to stay alive mathematically and, both in schools and universities, bears the responsibility of keeping teaching loads down so that free time for intellectual stimulation is not el iminated. These ideas were stimulated by a paper by D. E. Christie and J. H. Wells in the American Mathematical Monthly (74, October 1967). Even as the finite encloses an infinite series And in the unlimited limits appear, So the soul of immensity dwells in minutia And in narrowest limits no limits inhere What joy to discern the minute in infinity! The vast to perceive in the small, what divinity! - Jacques 58 Bemou I Ii / 1674-17 0-6_ �ARE TEACHERS BORN OR MADE? ( OR HOW TO KEEP YOUR COOL AMIDST THE EDUCATIONAL ) By Casey A. Gehrels Elementary and secondary education is becoming saturated with terminology that means little to anyone involved in the schools, least of all the people it is serving, the students and their parents. The people involved in education will usually state that the basic function of the school is to produce good citizens and to provide the opportunity to students to develop to their fullest potential. It is difficult to find fault with statements such as these, but we as teachers run into trouble when we try to interpret what they mean in the classroom situation. I should comment here on two points which I believe handicap a teacher in his responsibilities. You can also observe these points with post secondary teachers. First, it is difficult for a teacher to picture that learning takes place anywhere but in a classroom. If you were assigned and paid for performing in a single room in a school, which is true in most schools, you would experience the feeling that this room constitutes a completely separate and unique world for the teacher and the students. You can see a consequence of this situation in the intense difficulty students have in transfering any of their learning to situations outside the i r c 1ass room. Second, teachers like to think that 11 teaching 11 and II 1 ' 1ea r n i ng a re the same th i ng . Th i s is reasonable to expect because teaching gives an i mmed i a·te sense of accomplishment, whereas learning can probably not be observed by another person. It is also easier to teach than to help people learn. let 1 s look at some of the jargon in education. To start with, if you are a good teacher you should have 11 valid and viable aims, and objec- tives 11 • You could even state your 1 objectives in 11 behaviour te This means that you should know you are teaching things that you could predict the results teaching in terms of whats ts will act like when they come off the assembly line. Courses that are up-to-date should be "multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, nondisciplinary or integrated". This means that your courses must not be based on one of the disciplines, otherwise the student won't have a 11 felt need 11 for the material. Many teachers assume that their main function is to organize the ect material for their students. The way to do this in science is along 11 conceptional schemes 11 • This means the teacher must weave spaghettilike story lines through his subject matter, so students will learn important things. If you have taken grade 13 Physics lately you know that it takes a year of following a predetermined line of thought to learn something about the hydrogen atom. If your courses are up-to-date they should be based on 11 process 11 not 11 content 11 • This sort of means that students may end up learning whatever it is they learn; the important thing is what happens while they are learning. As a student in a modern school your learning falls into three "domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor 1 ' . This means t your learning is organized into three areas; what you learn about know ng, feeling and doing. Have you spent any time lately trying to explain to a seven year old what a garbage man is? It didn 1 t he1p your cause much when you ined 59 �I "The main function of a language, communication, has been analyzed by K. BLlhler into three functions: (l) him as a 11 sanitary engineer 11 • You were talking Greek. When teachers get to talking with one another, the jungle of meaningless terms makes the legendary language confusion of Baby 1on 1ook l i ke a Grade l 11 Reade r 11 (reading book). Teaching boils down to being able to talk to and understand your students. Educational jargon stifles this communication. When we train or try to improve teachers, we offer them little but jargon. People do not learn to communicate by having other people talk at them in strange language. Teachers are not made by other teachers or books. But perhaps teachers are born in the classroom? 111111 THE ADVENTURES Of by MATHMAN the expressive function - i.e. the communication serves to express the emotions or thoughts of the speaker; (2) the signalling or stimulative or release function - i.e. the communication serves to stimulate or to release certain reactions in the hearer (for example, linguistic responses); and (3) the descriptive function - i.e. the communication describes a certain state of affairs. These three functions are separable in so far as each is accompanied as a rule by its preceding one but need not be accompanied by its succeeding one. The first two apply also to animal languages, while the third appears to be characteristically human. It is possible (and I believe necessary) to add a fourth to these three functions of Buhler 1 s, and one which is particularly important from our point of view, viz. (4) the argumentative 111111 LU. MATH CLUB After finally reducing the 8th degree differential equation to a series of harmless 1st degree equations, MATHMAN was heading home to his Locally Compact Hausdorff Space on his trusty homomorphism, Hans. Hiding under an open cover, his Arch Enemy SIN- 1 -½- chose a lethal s>O from his arsenal of real numbers. Heedless of the Heine-Borel property, the villian projected hiss right through a finite subcover at our hero!!!! Having previously predicted that the probability of this event was negligible, MATHMAN was caught with his functions down. Frantically he grabbed his pocket APL terminal and by inspection sought a suitable o>O depending only on s to make the sequence of destructive elements to converge in a harmlessly distant Hilbert Space!! or explanatory function - i.e. the presentation and comparison of arguments or explanations in connection with certain definite questions or problems. A certain language may possess the first three functions without the fourth (for example that of a child at the stage when it just names things). Now, in so far as language qua institution has these functions, it may be ambivalent. For example, it may be used by the speaker to hide his emotions or thoughts as much as to express them, or to repress rather than to stimulate argument. And there are different traditions connected with each one of these functions. For example, the different traditions of Italy and of England (where we have the tradition of understatement) in connection with the expressive function of the respective languages are very striking ... 11 1 Will he find a suitable o? Will the computer stay up? Will SIN- 1 t ever converge? 1 CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge - Watch for the answers in the next MATHMAN adventure. [Harper 60 & Row, Inc. - KARL J. POPPER. 1968]. ■ �LAKEHEAD BECOMES CANADIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY New degrees give unique open By Edward Mercy The Senate of lakehead University has given approval to a new ki·nd of degree structure to be known as the B.Sc. (or B.A.) General Programme. It is a particularly suitable study programme for the part-time adult student, although it is open to any student who has met the usual entrance requirements. Consideration of two factors led to the regulatory basis for the new degree. Universities are urged to be relevant to the needs of present day society and to serve the region in which they operate. At a time of severe financial restraint, it is just not possible to develop new courses which meet these criteria. The General Programme overcomes this difficulty by making all existing courses available to the student, subject to certain conditions. FREE CHOICE OF SUBJECTS Most of the programmes of study at Lakehead University are arranged so that the student may meet the requirements of various professions. This means, in general, that choice of courses is severely limited and that specific requirements, especially in the major subject and to some extent in the minor subjects, have to be complied with. There are probably many people in the community who would like to study certain aspects of knowledge but have no desire or need to meet existing pre-requisites. The nature of the General Programme is such that students may make an entirely free choice of subjects to be studied. access (2) The credits may be obtained by taking any available courses offered by the University without regard to published pre-requisites. (3) The student is advised to discuss the importance of pre-requisites for a particular course with the Instructor of the course. (4) Only seven first-year credits may be included. (5) At least two third-year credits must be obtained. (6) The remaining six courses may be taken at second, third or fourth year levels. Thus, the degree programme really is as free as it possibly can be. The only important restriction is the one concerned with pre-requisites because, especially in the more professional courses, prior knowledge of the subject may be essential. But the University recognizes that such prior knowledge may already have been obtained elsewhere than at the University, for example by private study or practical experience. Whether a B.Sc. (or a B.A.) is finally obtained is simply based on whether there is a majority of Science or Arts courses in the fifteen credits. ■ Lakehead University evolved from the Lakehead Technical Institute which was established on June 4, 1946. Classes commenced in January, 1948, in temporary rented quarters in downtown Port Arthur. In September of that year, first year university courses were added to the curriculum. The Lakehead College of Arts, Science and Technology was established by an Act of the Ontario Legislature assented to on March 28, 1956, and proclaimed on August 1, 1957. The present university site was occupied on October 2, 1957. REGULATIONS ARE MINIMAL The regulations for the degree are these: (1) A student must obtain fifteen credits in order to be granted the degree. 61 �TRANSLATION ON A COMPUTER By K. H. V. Booth PROGRAMS PRODUCE ROUGH TRANSLATIONS French word horrone begins with a mute h we actually choose the abbreviated version l'. Next we have to look up speaks and here the difficulty occurs that a normal English/French dictionary will have no entry for this form of the verb, but only for the infinitive speak. We could possibly program the computer to recognize that speaks consists of the root form speak, together with the endings, but it turns out to be easier to store all possible forms of verbs (speaks, speaking, spoken, etc.) in our computer dictionary. Of course our program must also be able to recognize compound forms such as will speak, has spoken, etc. and choose the appropriate French equivalent. The latter process incidentally entails coping with the numerous irregular verbs of unhappy memory for anyone who has struggled to learn French! Fortunately, however, all this is fairly easy to accomplish. Computers are very efficient at storing long lists of words and at referring to them. They can also be made to manipulate words, adding endings, etc. using the techniques of text processing. Another problem which has to be faced is that word order is rarely the same in two languages. Suppose that we consider the sentence: The blind man speaks. In the French equivalent: L'horro-ne aveugle parle. the adjective must be placed after the noun instead of before it as in English, and this is just one example of the differences between English and French in this respect. Again, this is a task which can easily be programmed into the computer. For many years work has been going on directed at producing translations from one language to another using a computing machine. Much attention has been paid to the problem involved in translation to and from English and Russian, but here in Canada work has concentrated on English to French translation for the reason that our bilingual laws necessitate a great deal of this. So far the results of this work have been one or two programs which produce rough but fairly understandable translations of technical papers from Russian into English, and a program, developed at the University of Saskatchewan, which has processed about 10,000 words of translation from English into French. The output is far from perfect but can be understood and edited fairly easily by a French speaker. To see why we are still far from producing perfect translation we must look in more detail at some of the processes which are entailed. THE METHODOLOGY Suppose that we wish to translate the sentence: The man speaks. into French. The first step is to look up each word of the sentence in a dictionary, for unlike ourselves the computer cannot 11 recall 11 information instantaneously, but must consult the dictionary each time. The French equivalent of the will be found to have four alternative forms, 1e, 1a, 1 1 and 1es, depending on the gender and person of the following noun and the first task is to pick the correct form. The dictionary entry for man will contain the information that this is a masculine singular noun, normally requ1r1ng the translation le, but since the WORDS ARE TWO-FACED So far, however, we have ignored one huge difficulty. When we look up 62 �man i n our di ct i ona ry, the re wi 11 be IDIOMS AND STYLE three different translations depending on whether the word is used as a noun, adjective (man sized) or verb (to man the ship). Similarly blind might be either a noun, adjective or verb. Faced with multi-purpose words such as these (and in a typical piece of prose about half will consist of them) how can the computer decide on the correct choice? Several ways have been suggested. One of these is to make the computer 11 pa rse 11 the Eng 1 i sh sentence, using a set of construction rules which define the combinations of parts of speech which are permissable in a grammatical sentence. For example, the combination (Adjective Noun Verb) is possible, whereas the combination (Adjective Verb Noun) is not. This method which has been evolved by a group at the University of Montreal is theoretically attractive since new rules can be added easily. In application to actual texts, however, it appears less so, since the multiplicity of possible parsings which have to be considered make it very slow, particularly for long sentences. In the method developed at the University of Saskatchewan a completely different approach based on the statistical likelihood of the function of each word in a sentence is used. Instead of defining rules for constructions, we use statistics accumulated from text of similar type to make decisions on the function of each word in a sentence. This method is very fast but has the disadvantage that, being statistical, mistakes are made sometimes and for this reason the translation must be checked by a post-editor who corrects such errors (they are usually obvious). The error rate is low enough, about 3.5%, to make this possible for the type of text which we have tested so far. Our difficulties are not at an end, however, even when the parsing problem is disposed of. Every language has an abundance of "idioms 11 , i . e. , phrases which do not literally mean what they say. As an example consider the English saying 11 like it or lump it 11 which nearly brought Prime Minister Trudeau to grief. Similarly French has many idiomatic phrases which cannot be rendered word for word into English, for example, 11 boite de nuit 11 , which is the French version of 11 night club 11 and which translates literally as 11 box of night 11 • This problem can be overcome by storing a dictionary of idioms and making the program locate any which may occur in a sentence before translating it. In the program developed at the University of Saskatchewan we have a very efficient routine for accomplishing this. A final and still unsolved difficulty must be mentioned. In the sentence: I~ is within the province of the prov~nce to deal with education. province is used twice as a noun, but requires two different translations in French. This is a problem in semantics (i.e. meaning) and no one as yet has found a practical way of solving it. The solution adopted so far is to print both possible translations and leave it to the post-editor to decide. Sti11 more intractable are the problems of choosing the 11 best 11 French equivalent where more than one exist for a particular word in a particular sense. This involves considerations of 11 style 11 and as yet we have no idea how to make a computer make such choices. Indeed human translators will sometimes disagree on them so perhaps it is too much to expect a mere machine to succeed! England and America are two countries separated by the same language. -G.9.S. 63 �BLACK AND WHITE HOLES By J. S. Griffith Now that black and white holes have become both respectable objects of scientific investigation, what are their accepted properties? Black holes appear to be capable of having a wide variety of sizes ranging from one hundred thousandth of a gram (l) to solar sized objects and up to 10 10 solar masses (in galactic nuclei i) (2) . They result from the complete gravitational collapse of objects. Space and time are so strongly curved that no radiation can escape from the object into our Universe, nothing material can escape, and any attempt to explore the black hole by the physical introduction of a space probe would result in the destruction of the probe. The only characteristics of the probe that would still exist are its mass, electric charge, and linear and angular momentum. These three quantities are the only characteristics of the hole that may· be measured by their effect on the orbits of both charged and uncharged objects (from normal stars to space probes) which pass near the black hole or orbit around it. The appearance of a black hole depends upon the location and motion of the observer. If a spaceship was fortunate (?) enough to be present during a collapse and the astronauts decided to follow the collapsing matter down into the black hole, they would find the matter being crushed to increasingly higher densities, and the ship (and the astronauts themselves) torn apart by increasing tidal forces. No form of engine, rocket or nuclear powered, would be sufficient to save them from their fate, once the ship had crossed a certain critical position (the 1 horizon 1 ) . The ultimate collapse wi11 occur a finite time after the passage of the surface, and is inescapable. The interchangeability of space and time in the black hole leads to an inevitable passage to the centre of the hole as time increases. As time advances, all objects within the horizon move towards the centre. Should the astronauts decide on a safer course of action and watch the collapse from a great distance, they will find all signals and information from the later phases of collapse denied to them. These signals are caught up in the collapse of space-time and can never escape into the surrounding universe. However, during the formation of a black hole, pulses and trains of gravitational radiation will be given out. Matter falling into a black hole will be compressed and heated to about 10 11 °K as it is funnelled into the hole, and X-ray and Y-ray radiation may be observed. Jets and similar activity produced in the ergosphere of rotating black holes may be observed. The ergosphere. This is the region between the surface of infinite redshift and the horizon. If a spaceship ejects an escape capsule in this region, with the ship itself being caught up into the black hole, the capsule can escape (as it has more energy than the original spaceship) (4). There is no way for a spaceship to remain at rest in the ergosphere, however it fires its motors! As the core of a late giant star co11apses in volume by a factor of one million, the material of the core starts moving in slowly. The rate of collapse quickly increases, with the inner part of the core soon so contracted that it draws the core down much faster than the surrounding envelope. If the mass and the velocity of implosion are large enough, complete collapse ensues with the production of a black hole. However, in 64 �other conditions the collapse is suddenly halted, releasing a great deal of kinetic energy of motion into heat energy - like thousands of nuclear explosions. The consequent high temperatures 1ead to high pressures and consequent reversal of the implosion, propelling the envelope into space with the emission of cosmic rays and an expanding cloud of ions. A star of the order of the solar mass was responsible for what we observe as the Crab Nebula. If the star were rotating (as most stars are) and had a magnetic field, the winding up of magnetic lines of force (like cotton on a reel) leads to an elongation in the direction of the axis of rotation (3) and the emission of jets of matter from the poles. Added interest to the computation of such a situation arises when we have to take into account nuclear reactions - a problem that is, as yet, unsolved. The collapse into a black hole is preceded by th~ star passing quickly through the neutron-star phase. Other names for black hole are 'continuing collapse' and 1 frozen star•. Seen by the distant (wiser) spaceship crew, the collapse will never be complete (the radius diminishes exponentially with time). However, the probe moving with the matter (if it somehow can survive the process, which seems highly improbable) will see the dimensions become indefinitely small after a short period of time. The system will have a completely black appearance to the external spaceship. No light escapes, and laser beams shot at it disappear as they fall in. An adventuresome crew member shot into the hole would disappear to his fellows. Manoeuvering close to the hole and inserting a long stick or probe would lead to fragmentation of the stick by tidal forces and the disappearance of the broken pieces. Before the critical Schwarzschild radius is reached, light emitted from a specific cone can escape. As the Schwarzschild radius is approached the core becomes smaller, with ultimately (once the critical radius is passed) the 1 ight being perpetually caught by the collapsing geometry of space-time around the material in the hole. Should the external spaceship venture within the critical radius, it can never escape, and is forced towards the centre of the hole. No matter what sort of material takes part in the collapse, the characteristics of the black hole are the same, apart from the mass, charge and angular momentum. "A black hole has no hair}' (2). How can black holes be detected? Their size is of the order of 15 kilometers, so direct visual observation is out of the question. A companion 'normal I star may be observed orbiting around a black hole. Material from the companion may be drawn into the hole and disappear. Black holes may exist within stars (and even in the Sun~) (1). A black hole moving through an interstellar cloud may be observed as it sucks up material. The i n fl ow of mate ri a 1 wi l l 1ea d to emission in the X-ray region or in the Y-ray region (5). Orbiting teiescopes may give observations of such events. Weber's observations of gravitational waves may indicate a stellar collapse rate in the nucleus of the Galaxy of over one a day (l). In this reference is discussed low mass objects that have gravitationally collapsed, which may account for the low value of the density of the Universe, and indeed they may already have been observed as unidentified tracks on bubble chamber photographs. If, as is suggested in Ref. (1), the Sun has a central hole of mass 10 17 gm, radius 10- 11 cm, then in 10,000,000 years the Sun will be totally absorbed, giving first pulsar-quake-like phenomena followed by rapid collapse with the emission possibly of gravitational waves. This 65 �theory indicates that 1 ife on the Earth is 1 imited, instead of having billions of years to go, we have only millions. Even then, if we take man to have been 1 civilized 1 for ten thousand years, we are still in the first one thousandth part of our possible evolutionary development. We may compare our present state of development to a twenty day old baby, who can at least expect to survive to the age of fifty years. Certainly the human race has far to go, and much time for refinement of our present culture. Science fiction writers have a great range of time to deal with, and we can ~nly hope that human nature will change, so that eventually we are much more civilized. Perhaps we have already been examined by galactic civilization, classified as in the preplaypen stage, and left to our childish devices until we are worthy, in our adulthood of joining a galactic federation! R.M. Hjellming (National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank, W. Va.) has propounded the theory that black holes must have their opposites - white holes. Theories about pairs of complementary opposites are relatively common (matter and antimatter, electrons and positrons, etc.). Just as black holes take matter out of our universe (the ultimate in garbage disposal?), white holes are places where material enters our university. Maybe all material that leaves by the black hole route returns by white holes, having been purified 1 by intense heat and pressure, or we may be exchanging material with one or more other universes, with each maintained in a steady state, losing just as much as one gains. The white hole hypothesis is claimed to be an explanation for the energy source of quasars and galactic nucleii, for even thermonuclear reactions are insuffi- cient to provide the power. If energy and matter are pouring in from another universe, then sufficient energy may be available. The mathematical and physical details are not yet fully worked out, but there are tempting extrapolations and questions. 1) Can some way be found of passing information from one universe to another? 2) Does another, much more advanced, universe use ours as a 'garbage disposal unit' - is energy strictly conserved, so that they get back purified versions of what they disposed of? 3) Could one wage war, one universe against another, by putting more and more material into black holes, in the hope that the other universes are inflicted by a raise in radiation? (What time lag is there between disappearance in one black hole and appearance in a white hole?) 4) Is life in our universe bred from some incompletely processed garbage from another universe - a 'black hole' that somehow was not functioning correctly? 5) What relationship is there between the distribution of black holes in one universe and white holes in another? 6) Galactic nucleii appear to be long lived objects - is this consistent with a corresponding long lived black hole? There is a great deal more work to be done before these objects are fully explained and the white hole/ dual universe theory put on a firm foundation. REFERENCES (1) Hawking, S., Gravitational ly collapsed objects of very low mass', Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 152, 75 (1971). (2) Ruffini, R. and Wheeler, J.A., 'Introducing the black hole', Physics Today, January 1971, p. 30. 66 1 �(3) Leblanc, J.M. and Wilson, J.R., Lawrence Radiation Laboratory publ ication UCRL - 71873 (1969). (4) Penrose, R., Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, numero speciale 252 (1969). (5) Zel 1 dovich, Ya. B. and Novitrov ' I .D., Sov. Phys. - Dokl 2_, 246 (1964). tween any two of the points is groatl'r than or equal to d?" The value of r depends on the size of the needle point and d depends on the prescribed size of the anqels. When dis small relative tor-the answer to the above question is approximately one-half the answer to t~e same question on a sphere, so, g1ve or take half an angel, we will consider the question on a sphere. POLLEN GRAINS The Dutch botanist P.M.L. Tammes in 1930 (3) interpreted the placing of such points on a sphere as an arran~ement of orifices on a pollen gra1n. He wanted to explain the distribution on spherical pollen grains of the orifices {hereafter called exit places) at which a pollen tube can emerge in the process of fertilization. He observed, for example, that there are frequently 3,4 6 8 or 12 exit places, while 7,9,10 ~r~ quite rare and 5 and 11 exit places almost never occur. Further, the same plant may produce pollen grains with different numbers of exit places. However, each pollen tube requires a certain amount of space, so there is a number d, which turns out to be genetically invariant, such that the distance between any two exit places is at least a. Nature 1 s packing problem is placing as many exit places as possible on a pollen grain, subject to the distance restriction, in order to maximize the chances of fertilization. MISANTHROPES For another view of the problem of the pollen grain or of the angels consider n misanthropic individuals. Each so hates his fellow misanthropes that he wants to get as far away from them as possible. The misanthropes want to maximize the minimum distance between any two of them, while it is important for the pollen grain to maximize the number of exit places for a given minimum distance. However, a complete I/A\I IPI/A\ICl~lnl~IGI IPlil®lilllEl~I by J. H. M. Whitfield* How should trees in an orchard be arranged, how should mills in an urban area be situated, boxes in a warehouse tables in a night club, containerized' cargo in the hold of a ship, etc.? These are all types of packing problems. In this note we briefly consider a particular problem: the packing of a.number.of equal nonoverlapping circles 1n a sphere. The influence on the present note of the expository article {l) by H.S.M. Coxeter and the popular presentation {2) by Victor Klee is gratefully acknowledged. ANGELS One of the earliest known packing problems of the type we wish to consider is the medieval theological prob 1em: "How many angels can dance on the point of a needle?" To formulate the problem mathematically, we assume that the point is a hemisphere, the angels are all of the same size and they dance by spinning with their wings tightly folded. {A slightly weaker set of restrictions would allow the size of the angels to vary but restrict their dancing within a circle of fixed radius. At least this would allow the smaller angels more freedom in their dance!) We arrive at the mathematical problem "What is the maximum number of points that can be placed on a hemisphere of radius r so that the distance be- 61 �solution for one problem yields a complete solution to the other. The solution for n misanthropes are reported by Coxeter for n between 2 and 13 and n = 24. Some of the solutions are easily seen. Two misanthropes should live at opposite poles and three at the vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a great circle. Given four miserable persons, they should locate themselves at the vertices of a regular tetrahedron inscribed in the sphere. Fig. l shows the best arrangement of 5 and 6 misanthropes. You will observe that the solution for 5 is not unique as the three on the equator can be rearranged as long as the distance between any two of them is at least¼ of the circumference. Also, you will note that the minimum distance is the same for 5 and 6. This explains Tammes 1 observation that five exit places on a pollen grain almost never occur, for, if the grain is large enough to accommodate five, it can also accommodate six. Nature makes the best choice. A similar situation obtains in the case of 11 and 12 misanthropes. For n = 12, they should dwell at the vertices of a regular icosahedron inscribed in the sphere and for 11, just remove one of the vertices. Hence Tammes 1 observation that 11 exit places on a pollen grain occur infrequently. The other known solutions can be found in the indicated reference. The reader may wish to find the solution for 8 misanthropes, which is not difficult but mildly surprising. We have here an easily stated and easily visualized geometric problem which, generally speaking, is unsolved! Where should sixteen or twenty miserable people live? Figure I. Discussion of Shapes 11 presented to the High School Mathematics Teachers on their Professional Development Day, October 1972. ( 1) Coxete r, H. S. M. , 11 The prob 1em of packing a number of equal nonoverlapping circles on a sphere 11 , Trans. New York Acad. Sci. (2) 24 (1962), 320-31. (2) Klee, Victor, 11 Shapes of the Future", Am. Scientist .22_, 84-91 (1971). (3) Tammes, P.M.L., 0n the origin of the number and arrangement of the plates of exit on the surface of pollen grains 11 , Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl. 27, 1-84 (1930). - References ·kThis note is extracted from a talk entitled "Convexity: An Elementary 68 11 �THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE GAME OF BRIDGE By Li r ry Hansen The game of bridge has developed into a pastime enjoyed by a great many people around the world. People p]ay the game for many reasons but in this article I would 1 ike to concentrate on the aspects of the game that appeal to people with scientific minds. For the sake of brevity, I will assume that the reader has at least a knowledge of the basic rules of bridge. However I will briefly describe the three phases of the game in order to bring out some important points that will have a bearing on the remainder of the article. to arrive at a contract better than the par contract. Since an above par contract for one side is a below par contract for the other side the conclusion is that the result of perfect bidding would be that every hand would be played at the par contract. However since it is illegal for a player to look at any cards except his own during the bidding and since there are not enough possible bidding sequences to describe the other three hands completely it is impossib1e for a player to always know what the par contract is on the various deals he encounters. In actual play it is very rare for a player to know what the par contract is before the play of the hand begins. Therefore, we can draw the conclusion that even if all four participants co-operated there is no perfect bidding system that will always result in the par contract being reached. THE DEAL The fifty-two cards are shuffled to produce a random order, then they are dealt face down to the four players so that each one sees only his thirteen cards. If we assume for a moment that each contestant could see a11 four hands then it would be possible to decide the maximum number of tricks that each partnership could take if we assume that the contestants are capable of perfect play and perfect defense. From this it is possible to deduce whether or not the pair that can take fewer tricks (or the same number of tricks but in a lower ranking contract) will lose more points by sacrificing or by letting the opponents play in their best contract. The least number of points that this pair can lose is called the value of the hand and the contract that can be played to arrive at this result is called the par contract. If we consider the game of bridge from a game theoretic standpoint we see that if we assign specific values for part scores and non-vulnerable games each deal produces a type of two person game with a unique value and at least one saddle point. (See Appendix). THE PLAY After the cards have been dealt and the bidding is completed the defender on the declarer's left finds himself in the position of having to make the opening lead. The only information that this defender has at his disposal is a knowledge of his own thirteen cards and an inferential knowledge, gained by listening to the bidding, of the distribution of the remaining cards. We can see that the success or failure of many contracts rests upon the crucial decision of which card to select for the opening lead. Once the opening lead has been made and the dummy is spread each player has a knowledge of the location of at least half of the cards in the deck. Declarer 1 s responsibility is to take as many tricks as possible with his primary aim being to make the contract. On the other hand, the defenders try to take as many tricks as THE BIDDING This phase of the game gives each partnership the opportunity to attempt 69 �possible in order to defeat the contract. The declarer formulates all the plans for his side, whereas successful defence requires that both defenders arrive at an accurate analysis of the situation~ formulate a successful line of attack and coordinate their efforts to bring about the desired result. We see then that no matter how difficult it is to be a capable declarer it is even more difficult to be successful in defence. An application of the laws of probability indicates that approximately 25% of the time a bridge p1ayer is dummy, 25% of the time he is declarer and 50% of the time he· is a defender. Consequently, a prerequisite for achieving success as a bridge partnership is the mastery of the art of defence. that have evolved are the natural approach and the coded or artificial approach. With the natural approach when you bid spades you are suggesting a possible final contract in spades or at least you are showing high card values in spades. However, with the coded approach a spade bid might mean almost anything. To illustrate, an opening bid of two diamonds, depending on the system you are playing, might mean (i) a hand strong enough to make a game in diamonds, ( i i) a hand containing eleven to fifteen high card points and a singleton or void in diamonds (iii) a hand of slam potential that is asking for aces (iv) a hand containing four spades and five hearts and eleven to sixteen high card points. In tournament bridge the rules make it mandatory to explain any special understandings that a partnership has about a particular bid. This ruling reduces some of the power of coded systems. Nuisance bids interjected by the opposition also have a tendency to weaken the power of artificial sequences. Natural systems on the other hand, do not have the required precision to explore accurately for slam contracts. The path that most exp~rts seem to follow is to play a system that is basically natural with the addition of certain artificial bids and sequences. BIDDING SYSTEMS Since it is impossible for a partnership to legally gain the necessary knowledge about the placement of all fifty-two cards in order to bid with assurance to the par contract, bidding systems are constructed on the basis of the partnership holding of twentysix cards. An experienced player by looking at his hand and his partner's can assess approximately how many tricks the two hands together will produce in play. This assessment is based on application of the laws of probability to the missing cards and an understanding of how combinations of cards can be treated to produce the maximum number of tricks. The main aim of any bidding system is to produce a sequence of bids that will give at least one of the partners a very clear picture of his partner's hand so that someone is in the position of being able to decide upon a sensible final contract. (One problem many players encounter is that of realizing when they have already bid up to six spades, for example, that the most they could possibly make is five spades). The two basic approaches to bidding DEFENCE While the eventual declarer and his partner are bidding back and forth, exchanging information that will enable them to decide upon a final contract, the defenders are listening and thereby gaining the same information about their opponents' hands. This information is one of the defenders' most valuable tools in their attempt to make as many tricks as possible on a given hand. A second device used by all expert defenders is a signalling code in the play of equivalent cards. These signals tell each defender 70 �whether or not his partner has an even or odd number of diamonds, whether he should play hearts if he gets on lead and so on. However, just as the rules of bridge make it mandatory to explain bidding understandings to your opponents, they also require that you inform declarer of the meaning of def~nsive card play signals. Consequently, everything the expert defender does to improve his lot in life makes it a little easier for the expert declarer to play his cards. and refinement of successful defensive play and in the honing of the skills required for expert declarer play. In fact, just as pursuit of knowledge in any of the sciences can become a life-long pastime and pleasure, the game of bridge can prove to be a scientific ego trip of virtually limitless horizons. APPEND IX The following table displays some of the possible contracts and the resulting scores for a typical hand of bridge. All scores are given relative to N-S. For example, -80 means that N-S lose 80 points irrespective of which column the -80 appears in. Successful part-score contracts receive a bonus of 50 points. On this particular hand N-S are vulnerable and E-W are not. The saddle point for this hand occurs when N-S bid and make 2S. If E-W bid more, they will get doubled and lose more than 110 points and if N-S bid less, then E-W can bid 2H and lose only 100 points if they are doubled. DECLARER PLAY For several years I thought that it was only necessary to attain one goal in order to become an expert declarer. I believed that al 1 one had to do was to look at the opening 1ead, the dummy and one I s. own hand and use the laws of probability to arrive at the most likely distribution of the missing cards in the opponents' hands and then, use one's knowledge of card combinations to arrive at a line of play that mathematically offered the best chance for success. Being expert in this aspect of the game will a11ow you to do reasonably well in most levels of bridge. However, to reach the pinnacle of expert play one has to be capable of inferential location of missing cards as opposed to probability location of missing cards. To locate cards inferentially one has to understand the opponents' system of bidding and defensive play exactly as well as they do. The next step is to climb into their minds and decide which distribution of the outstanding cards is the one that seems to mesh with the bids and plays that they did and didn't make. After this has been done it is a fairly simple matter to decide how to play the hand. N-S CONTRACT INT 2C 2D 2H 2S 2NT 3C 3D CONCLUSION 3H It can be seen that the game of bridge offers intellectual challenges in the creation and use of effective bidding systems in the development 3S 11 ... a; -.::, j j !i lC 1D 1H 1S ~ 70 70 -100 -= 140 I § 50 50 -.::, a., 1 100 140 -200 -80 100 -160 110 90 360 100 300 180 100 -100 -100 -200 50 -200 -200 -500 100 300 100 50 300 100 150 100 500 300 500 500 300 700 110 670 -100 -200 -200 -200 -300 -100 -500 -500 -800 -200 150 150 100 200 �ACROSS 1[9,8] Cobras, kraits and rattlers 10[ 7] Atoms in a crystal are arranged in a window 11[ 7] Curricu1a 12[ 5] Send a payment to reduce disease symptoms 13[ 5] American vital power 14[ 5] 11 Junior 11 is a detached piece of plant 15[ 7 Scientists recognize this as a sound unit 19[ 4] The most frequent state of a boy 21[ 4] Hot and cold fits this clue 22[ 7] Genus Falco 23[ 6] Relating to either of the muscular flaps in front of the teeth 24[ 6] To transfer a liquid, take an 25[ 7 26[ 4] 28[ 4] 30[ 7] 32[ 5] initial sip - then aspirate on Shorten a structure to cross a river The upper end of a mountain valley cherishes a desire for good One's cards Puts into symbols for economy A theatre for musical contests sounds like a bad state to be in A short physician 34[ 5] 35[ 5] ' 37[ 7] A change of momentum 38[ 7] A dashing large wing covering 39[9,8] The function of ductless glands C I *clues* e s DOWN 18[ 7 ] Diminishes 20[ 5 ] Watered mohair in an interference pattern 21[ 5 ] A helium nucleus begins an alphabet 27[ 7 ] A swimming leg 29[ 7] Symbols of medicine 31[ 6 ] A member of the Icteridae from Baltimore 33[ 5 ] An acid from an unripe apple 34[ 5 ] Strait across which Brunel built a tubular bridge 35[ 4] A Persian fairy begins to surround 36[ 4 l A famous account of heroic proportions 1[17] A rubbery plastic 2[ 7 1 A whole number 3[ 5] Salix viminalis makes baskets 4[ 4] At an end 5[ 6] Norway Lobsters 6[ 4] Where dawn approximately is 7[ 5] Boulder clays or shales found in stores 8[ 7 ] Charging ready to fire 9 [7,3,7] The theme of Libera 1 Science courses 15[ 7] Reduce in pressure 16 [ 7 ] 0 1d heat 17[ 7] Thought about with a frown on eggs 72 �CRYPTIC C OS ~ 0 ~ ~ 0 □ 13 ~ ~ , □ ~ ~ ~:J lTTJ LB ~~, ~ ~ ~ ~ 0✓0 • 0,n %1 ~-~ 20 ~/--n ~22 %I □ 23 ~ wA1 ~□ ~ ~----12 • •.~ ~25 .. □ % ~ ~~I% □% I , / ~ _, ~-~,131 ~ w 37 w w //~35 7 I m_///, ~ % □ ~ 36 , ~ ~ ~38 39 or, in desperation, telephone: II EXT. 529 73 807-3 45·2121 ~ ?$ % w, - �QUICK ~ CROSSWORD ACROSS 1 [13] Change of structure 6 [ s 1 Wool y an i ma 1s 7[ s ] Foss i 1 res i n 8[ 3 ] Pitch 9 [ 6 ] Me ta 1 27 11 [ 6 ] Purple dye 13 [ 3 l Snake 1i ke fish 14( s ] Mexican aboriginal 16 [ s ] Castrated bull 18[13] Flashes of light DOWN 1[13] "Kissing disease" 2[ s ] Shinbone 3( 3] One male human 4( 6 ] Smal 1 explosion 5[13] One thing on top of another 6 [ s ] lberi an country 1O[ s ] Bi 1e--secreti ng gland 12 [ 6 ] From the centre 15[ 5] Latin early spring flowers 17 [ 3 1 Oeoxyri bonucl eic acid A s T R 0 I N 0 A L u N I T C T I 0 N A N D R E A C T I 0 N A T u R A L L 0 A R T H M 75 s * SOLUTIONS * �If you have enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you have not enjoyed reading Caret, please write to us. If you would like to contribute an article, please write to us. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please write to us. "CARET" Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E 1 �PLE S ABOU L FOR OT STUDENTS R O R AD � https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/a9d84167547aaa94027c590115533f94.pdf c6d8440138e86b3aa3f2aa903e9cf05c PDF Text Text "f-h ·• ~~p~~ -~~--~ ~ .. ~Y,-~\ ""f"~~ - -• 1 ·• l.,b. ~ • ~ ;s "-•"A . .... . • ~ - , <,,;_I lJI'- ~ •'•r,~~1.~k)~f~ J• -~ .• ~-r. ·.- t~ ~◄ •' DISTANCE CHART RADAR AND RADIO COMMUNICATIONS ,JI \. ri~, { ,.~,~~ Light, Electricity and Radar Waves travel at 186,282 miles per second. This graph indicates the time it takes from earth for these waves to reach points shown. :}~~w ~ Jl PLANETS TIME TIME GALAXIES LAPSE LAPSE MERCURY 4¼ min. ANDROMEDA VENUS 2 min. 18 sec. 1,500,000 lgt. yrs.* MARS 4 min. 21 sec. ALPHA CENTURI JUPITER 35min. llsec. 4 yrs. 7 mon. 7 days SATURN 1hr. 11 sec. URANUS 2 hr. 32 min. OUR SUN 7 min. 59 sec. NEPTUNE 4 hr. 2 min. MOON 1.23 sec. PLUTO 6 hr. 25 min. MOON . ·. ..... : - i.~ . . . .. • • . ·t ·: *LIGHT YEAR-The speed of light, approx. 186,282 miles per sec., times 60 sec., times 60 min., times 24 hrs., times 365 days. . 43 1/3 days MARS 57 2/3 days MERCURY 831/3 days 6111/3 days I I I I I I Min. Distance from Earth (in m1les1 221,463 26,000,000 34,600,000 50,000,000 367,000,000 SATURN 12411/J days 745,000,000 URANUS 268!1/3 days 1,608,800,000 NEPTUNE 4466 I 2,679,600.000 days I 2,668,000,000 • -~·,_.: : .. :·:;· ·. ·,;.-'.' . • • ·:.~~~ - . '. : •. :·.• ·-·. • • PLUTO C'\ · • · .',"t ; ,:.. . . ,v.0\' ..·... : • • 3 600 M,. D,a. . .. . . , PLUTO 4446 2/3 days •• ····• . ' known . ·:;: • ,. .- EROS ' • -.~-,,-- . • ..• ... . .""I ·P.L ~ :" ,7~ti;fii1 ..... - p,'9 •• ., . • • ]::~/T/JY:~\-·- . ·, ..: .... •• Dia. •· •;)fo}//· . ... .·-%-:·.,., 865,000 Dia. , ... .. ' 0~ tj,~~ ~~ ~~e~ ;_",::·~'\-:-~ -;:-;, •· -·i .-··.- ' ..... •.:.·,·,., ,- ~ SUN ·~,. ' .. ' SUN SPOTS ";: . .. • !_!-. Ji. . . .' • • • ; i .; ',:-kc· ••. • . .. -...: .. \ ~ 23 Hrs., 56 Min. • :~~:-\-:~~.. ....... · c=.... ~ ·· \ ,:... •• .. \if · ..• .. : •• ....~ I ~ . . ,. . . ' ...... . . .. • • "'-l"~'- ,· ...' .. •'• ' •, ~ -:_'.·: ...". ~ ~ : · · , : ;- : •. • a • • - ~-,_,~ . .... .?~ .. . ~..::f,..• :::~::.·< •.• .:~J: ···... 12,000 Light Years , 170,000 Light Yea • • •. ;~:.;: ·..... ..... -~~ ·~ ~ . -~ ....:-·· ..' .... .. ' :. .. .. \ ;· .. ·Jit~· .· ... ... ' • ,: ~- .. .-:-4:..~~,"'..:. -:· . - • ' .Jllll:!r •" ./)f· .. . . ARTH -7,918 Mi. Dia.·.•,,.:· ..: :_·::•:•::~·.-..-·· ·:. , SURFACE TEMP. ll~000° CENTRE 35 Million° • • C:,\)~ ~-c.0~ e,e ... ' "\ • . , NEPTUNE 1,000 Mi. D Hrs., 40 M, ~ • U . f .... !_··· ···: . t :·. '· • .• ; ' J .. .. ..:; .: ~ .. . --· ::: · ·. ~ 1,500 to ~0,000 known \ .. ·.,.;, ·., .... ff"'.,.,_' ca.. ~~ ASTEROIDS • VENUS .. · :-~~:·.... -.:• ••• ::/f1:<1, fi.~:--_·:·.:, .• •• •· . __ .. ES 8-4/5 hrs. JUPITER I • ~,· ! Speed 25,000 m.p.h. Arrive Leaving Earth for t .: :·:)::·,:f -~. • SPACE SHIP TIME SCHEDULE . • • Rings 41,500 Miles Wide • . ~- . . , • • ' ., • • . •A' • ' ,.,r--\ ,,. .• 1·•.._;;. A.RT •· PRINTING ::!,- • . · ;· ~ . ·.>•··.:~ ' •. , ,_·, . ' •• .. • ,'-- ' • - ' 1 1 ' ' ..... . ANDROMEDA GALAXY 1,500,000 Light Years Distant ~l .--~~ ~ •. co. TOR ONTO ' � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 2 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 2, 1973. Articles on a variety of topics: A letter from Mme Jeanne Sauve from the Minister of State Science and Technology to Dr. John Hart from Lakehead University Department of Physics Letters to the editor Scientific explanations and hypotheses Science in everyday thought Wisdom in education and jobs by Jim Wheeler Basic Air Navigation by Air Vice Marshal Bradshaw Constructing a bird observation tower to study ring-billed gulls on Granite Island in Black Bay by John R Butler Biologists and biology Air and water pollutants Nuclear reactors, atomic energy and sources of energy Physics and biology Future careers and obsolete jobs Travels in Mexico Science in nursing Interview with Lakehead University Chemistry Storekeeper Petrology, the study of rocks, thin sections and geology Computer translations Solar system black and white holes, astronomy Also contains photographs, crossword puzzles and an outer space print. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e731227523cb1fcf34e0bade5071efd4.pdf d551bd997528b3e39eb075fd927e03d4 PDF Text Text caret LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW VOLUME 1 NUMBER 1 A PUBLICATION OF THE ONLY FACULTY OF SCIENCE THAT TRULY UNDERSTANDS NORTHWESTERN ONTARIO �Caret JANUARY 1973 A LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY SCIENCE REVIEW incorporating LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE CARET (kar'at) n. A sign (" or 11.) placed below a line to indicate where something should be inserted. What is missing? Well - a title, for one thing, and a magazine without a title is unthinkable! We, the editors, are not at all sure what you would like us to do, but we do know one thing there is a disastrous communications gap between High Schools and Universities: the bridge across it is missing and we will hope to span the void if only with a gossamer thread. Let us know what kind of articles you would like to see. Write an article yourself and send it in. Push your science teachers into sending us stories about their scientific and personal interests, or write about them yourselves (what an opportunity!). Above all, don't think that what you have to say will not be of any interest to us: let us be the judge of that. And, please don't assume that university scientists are somehow not quite human; we experience the same emotions of fear and hope, love and hate as the majority of human kind . Oh, about the title. The 1378-page, four volume Harper Encyclopaedia of Science for the best title. Why not fill in the form on the back page and send it to us TODAY? Naturally, I am still extremely interested in any publication that may come forth. Would it be possible to be placed on your mailing list? Once I get my head above water around here, I'd be glad to send you an article on teaching Canadian students some science in a German environment. Let me know if I can be of some assistance! - E.F. Dojack, Lahr Senior School, Canadian Forces Base, Europe. C.F.P.O. 5000. We'll be very pleased to hear from you from time to time, and we hope you will send us an article when you have settled down a bit. - Ed. CONGRATULATIONS! This is the first edition of the Lakehead University Science Review, "CARET". It was conceived by the Faculty of Science as a logical extension of the Lakehead University Mathematics Gazette into a wider area of subjects. We hope that it will be as successful as the "Gazette" and create active interest in the many aspects of Science. Our editor, Dr. John Hart, deserves our thanks for the initiative and vigour he has shown in collecting such varied articles from many eminent authors. We hope that each will contribute again to later editions. Good reading to you all. The encyclopaedia is really worth having. The views expressed in Caret do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Editor, the Faculty or the University. Caret is published by the Faculty of Science of Lakehead University. Thunder Bay "P", Ontario, Canada. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR R. A. Ross, Dean, Faculty of Science Dear Professor Hart: Thank you very much for your recent letter. May I take this opportunity of conveying my good wishes for the success of your Journal. Science is everybody's business. Kindest regards. Thank you for your letter of August 15. As you have probably guessed from my return address, I am teaching with the Canadian Armed Forces here in Germany for the next two years. Mr. W.A. (Bill) Luft has taken over as Head of Science at Lakeview. Yours sincerely, Alastair Gillespie, M.P., Etobicoke �A SCIENTIST LOOKS AT SOCIETY By Andrew D. Booth terribly practicable solution. Even so, the time involved is still quite short, about 900 years, in fact. Yet another solution which has been proposed to cope with the population increase is to export population to adjacent planets. As things appear at the present time, the only possible candidate would seem to be Mars, although, assuming a high degree of technological competence, one might include Venus in the argument. However, it should be noted that a 1.9% increase per annum in population involves a doubling in 37 years for Mars and a very much smaller time then to cover Venus. ARE WE HEADING FOR DOOMSDAY? Thinking and reading members of our community at the present time are bombarded with information about "ecological catastrophe". On the other hand, the voices of industry and government assure us that many of the warnings of the more frenetic environmentalists are without foundation. It may, therefore, be interesting to consider the sort of hard information which the scientist can give about problems of this type, and to do this, 1 shall explain briefly three approaches to the problem. 593 YEARS TO GO The first approach is what one might call the worst case geometric one. Here, one assumes that the surface of the earth is drained of water in some way which is yet to be discovered, that humanity goes on increasing in numbers at its present rate of approximately 1.9% per annum, and that the limit is attained when the surface of the earth is covered solidly with people standing shoulder to shoulder and back to back. This situation is covered by the simple compound interest law learned at school and by the formula known to the Greeks for the area of spherical surfaces. 1nserting the relative parameters, it turns out that at this rate of population increase, the earth's surface will be covered in only 593 years from now. Remembering that this is just about the period since the renaissance, and that no assumptions have been made about the way in which society operates, the way in which wars may reduce population and so on, this is a far from reassuring figure. The second argument which can be used is what one might describe as the thermodynamic one. in this, we assume that the surface of the earth is covered not only with a single layer but with people stacked shoulder to shou Ider, back to back, and feet to head. In other words, they are accommodated in multi-storey skyscrapers. The problem involved here is one of great interest to the physicist since, in the last analysis, it resolves itself into one of energy dissipation. When the population of the world reaches about 10 17 people, the skin temperature of the outside of the structure required to dissipate the human energy into space, would have to run at a temperature of something like 5,000° C which is precisely the temperature of the outer layers of the sun. One need hardly say that this is not a ZERO POPULATION GROWTH NOW Finally, one can consider the so-called M. I. T. model. Th is relates the future to the socio-economic variables of the present. Such models are extremely complex and their study has only been possible since the advent of large electronic computers. Whilst some of the details of the M. I. T. model are open to question, the main structure is sound. The model shows that, unless radical steps are taken to ensure zero population growth now, only about 100 years remain until the world population is reduced to about¼ of its present value by an eco-catastrophe. This neglects the very real possibility of a major war and points up the urgent need for an in-depth application of the hard physical and mathematical sciences to the soft area of sociology. t 2 �SCIENCE IN SOCIETY By C. K. Mclellan THE ROLE OF SCIENTISTS Information must be presented so that it is easily understood by non-scientists. It does no good to attempt to dazzle people with unintelligible jargon. [ Amen! - Ed J The second approach lies in more direct action on several political levels. The scientist should be involved in political and community action groups where he has direct contact with other citizens. As the traditional training grounds for highly professional scientists, universities should have an important part in developing a social responsibility for science. The two dominant functions of universities have always been education and research and the current problem is how best to execute these functions in scientific fields for the benefit of society. The system provides some students with a broad general background of knowledge, but often with few specific work skills. Such a graduate frequently fails to impress an industrial employer, who notes with dismay the considerable practical training this person will require in order to become a productive employee. On the other hand, industries must bear in mind that in the long run, it is more to their advantage to have employees whose wide background knowledge allows them to be flexible in their work, than to have only narrow specialists. Of late, people have begun to consider more carefully the role of science in society. This unexpected turn of events has caught many scientists unprepared, for they grew accustomed to the attitudes prevailing in our technological society in the 1950's - an attitude which seemed almost to hold science and its devotees in awe for their considerable contributions to recent world developments. SCIENCE IS A TOOL Prior to this century, the dominant role of science was the discovery of new knowledge. Beginning early in the 1900's, however, the trend to urbanization and industrialization of the western world translated much of this knowledge into new products and services. As a corollary, the role of science was altered to emphasize these goals of the industrial society. The transformation was highly successful. Science became an essential tool in our production - and consumption-oriented economy. The role of science assumed two important aspects: the continuation of this line of economic and social development through product improvement; and, the evaluation of new ideas. Science's "experts" became highly respected as important parts of a system which provided the good life for many. This, in turn, produced in our educational systems a great emphasis on training more scientists in the "practical" fields where their skills could be applied to immediate problems. The economic system which uses technology, and the people who welcome its benefits, must share some responsibility for the problems it has created: scientists must accept a large portion of the responsibility, but it seems that scientists have often divorced their role as scientists from their role as citizens. CANADIAN BASIC RESEARCH IN DILEMMA The research function of a university arises quite naturally. University researchers seek approval from their peer group - other researchers. Hence in order to be respected, a university must produce high-quality research results through its graduate school. The amount of research done this way is valuable, particularly in Canada. In our so-called branch plant economy, industries tend to emphasize research in the narrow areas of product and process improvement, and the "basic" research for which there may be no immediate application is left to the foreign parent company. If a significant amount of basic research is to be done in Canada it appears that universities must do much of it. The dilemma arises in the choice of topics for investigation, for the benefits of research should accrue both to the scientific community and to the larger community of Canadian people. This implies that a significant proportion of such work must be FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY A scientist must be given the freedom to speak out on matters touching his field of expertise and he must accept the responsibility. He should shun the pose of the expert and should function, rather, as a "resource person" whose knowledge should be shared by others, for it is the entire society which must evaluate the information and choose courses of action. A first approach to this goal may be made through the professional associations of scientists. 3 �at the beginning of this year. Gradually it solidified; mountains were formed and eroded and formed again; the ocean basins and continents began to take shape. For perhaps half of this year the earth was barren and lifeless. Then at some indeterminate point in August, life in the form of single-celled organisms appeared in the seas. It was not until late November that Iife forms emerged from the waters and were able to survive on land. The age of the great dinosaurs was as recent as mid-December. And modern man did not evolve until the last few minutes of our year. Now the question must arise as to what evidence there is to substantiate these divisions of time. Fossils of course give us the clues to the last 600 million years, but what about the more than half of earth's history when there was no life present or organisms were soft-bodied and could not leave fossil evidence? By what means do we divide this immense span of time into more concise parts? The answer to this question lies in the field of geochronology. Using radioactive elements and their known rate of decay into stable end products, it is possible to calculate the time required to produce a certain quantity of the stable substance and hence the age of the original radioactive element. Several methods of radioactive dating are employed. The uranium-lead method can give us the absolute age of a rock but is useful only when there are lead-bearing minerals present. Far. more abundant are potassiumbearing minerals, and for dating these we use the potassium-argon "clock". However this method does not give us the absolute age of a rock, rather the date of the most recent orogenic (mountain-building) event to which it was subjected. For example, prior to the application of this method of geological dating, much of the Canadian Shield was simply regarded as Precambrian (older than 600 million years or before November in our analogous year). Now we know more specifically that the rocks of the eastern Shield underwent their most recent metamorphic event about one billion years ago, whereas those of the western regions were last metamorphosed about 2.5 billion years ago. Thus we can now subdivide the Precambrian of Canada into periods of orogeny. By such methods of dating we not only learn the ages of rocks and events, but can divide huge eras of time such as the Precambrian into more specific and meaningful periods, making geological time and evolution that much easier to comprehend. tailored to the foreseeable needs of our nation. Considerable emphasis should be placed on these needs in choosing research topics, and as responsible citizens, scientists should be doing this themselves. The abdication of such responsibility invites forced direction of research from the governments which supply a significant portion of funding for research. University education should be broad enough to create a search for alternate approaches to the solution of socio-technogical problems. For example; in the problem of energy shortages currently plaguing parts of North America, the conventional solution is to seek technical means of meeting the increased demand for energy. The success of such solutions has led producers to invite increased demand which in turn raises consumption. It would be better to find a way of cutting back on the rate of increase in demand for energy. SCIENTISTS ARE CITIZENS Alternate approaches to large problems often range beyond the fields of expertise of the specialist. No grouping of experts alone can make the decisions, for the implications may be so broad that only society as a whole can decide. That may well be where the major role for science lies in the future - not in product development and production, but as an information resource for a society which we can but hope will be pursuaded to develop rationally. The relative importance of science will be diminished as scientists de-emphasize their roles as experts in favour of their roles as citizens. t GEOLOGICAL TIME By: M. Kehlenbeck MAN HAS LIVED FOR A FEW MINUTES Geological time spans are among the most difficult concepts to comprehend. It is common for us to think in terms of years, generations, and centuries. However beyond this, time becomes, for most of us, merely a number of many zeros without any real meaning. Yet the geologist speaks constantly in these terms. At present we believe the age of the earth to be about 4.5 billion years and the existence of life on earth to be of approximately 2 billion years duration. Do these figures really signify anything to you? Perhaps an analogy can serve to make these time spans more meaningful. Let us use one of our years to represent the entire history of earth. Our planet then was forming t 4 �SO YOU WANT TO BE AN ATHLETE? By J. Widdop A KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE MIGHT HELP! of the biceps and brach ial is and the resistance being the forearm itself whether or not a weight is being held in the hand. Normally, when considering levers the force is assumed to be acting at right-angles but with muscle action this is rarely observed. Using the It is difficult for many people to accept or even recognize the relationship which exists between Mathematics and Athletics. The purpose of this article is to indicate a few of the various aspects of that relationship. Many students who excel in mathematics are excellent athletes, a well-known example being Frank Ryan who was quarterback for the Cleveland Browns and has a Ph.D. in mathematics. "ACTION- AND REACTION- APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES Three fairly simple formulae are shown below. See if you can identify them: a} _____½ 2 2 R+ R = v sin 8 cos 8 + V cos 9 v sin 2 9 + 2gh 2 .. . •• .. g _______½ b} R +R +R = 1 2 3 • v2sin8cos8+V • • • • 2 cos8V sin 2 0+2g (h-Csin8) fl • ,, ,. .J •• . 14.· ARE EQUAL 9 + c sin a+ c cos 8 c} I am certain (?) that you will recognize that a} and b) are derived from the basic laws governing the path of a projectile which describes a parabola and show the formulae for the flight of a shot and the distance covered by a long jumper respectively. c) may be used to calculate how much further a fast ball may be hit than a slow ball, assuming all other pertinent data are equal (U 1 = velocity of ball before meeting bat}. These three examples constitute only a sample of the plethora of similar formulae which are applied everyday - whether by chance or design - in the realms of physical activity. AND OPP OSI TE ! " flexing of the forearm again as an example the usual formula needs to be modified. Let us. suppose we are holding a 5 lb. weight in the hand with the forearm fully extended and wish to know what force need be exerted to start the flexion of the forearm. We may assume that the weight arm (from weight the force point) is 12" and that the force arm (muscle insertion to fulcrum - elbow point) is 2". Normally the formula would read: THE BODY IS A MACHINE The human body contains many examples of levers with the bone itself constituting the rigid bar, the joint being the fulcrum and the contracting muscle the force. Most body movements are produced through third-class levers where the force point lies between the fulcrum and the resistance point. Examples are when one flexes the forearm with the elbow acting as the fulcrum, the force being applied at the insertion point Force x Force Arm F x 5 = Weight 2 5 F 2 x Weight Arm or in our case X 12 60 30 lbs. �The Y component of R creates Iift while the X component has a retarding effect and is called drag. Most coaches encourage their charges to kick or throw at a lower angle than usual into a head wind or higher with a tail wind. The Russian discus throwers are informed of the precise wind conditions prior to throwing and adjust the angle of release accordingly, which may vary from as low as 22° to above the "ideal" 45°. As a matter of interest the best results were obtained with the discus inclined at 35° and a head wind not exceeding 14 m.p.h. Spin or gyration is also applied in many sports and has either a stablizing effect that holds an object on course, or resists a ohange in the direction of the axis of the object. If the spin on a football is too little, the ball will float or travel end over end, while too much spin will tend to cause the ball to swerve from its intended path. All baseball pitchers know that a spinning ball will tend to move in the direction in which it is spinning; a top spin will cause the ball to drop while a ball spinning counterclockwise (viewed from above) will curve away to the pitcher's left. Th is is caused by the increased air resistance met by the ball on the side which is spinning into the created head wind. In such games as basketball, tennis, table-tennis, handball, cricket and billiards, spin is used to change the direction of the ball by use of the relevant surface area rather than through the air, although certain top class bowlers in cricket are capable of causing the ball to curve through the air one way and then - upon striking the ground - spin back sharply in the opposite direction. This would be one example of applying both air resistance and gyration .effects, while a tennis serve could be another. However, the applied force in this case is not at right angles but at an angle of approximately 5° with the lever. Therefore a more realistic calculation of the force exerted by the biceps would, in our example, be F = 30 sin 5° 30 .0872 344 lbs. If we started at 30° angle the force required would be: F = 30 .5 = 60 lbs. It can be seen that to exert great force the force arm should be as long as possible while for greater speed the force arm should be relatively short. In the movement of body parts we have no real control over these factors as the muscle attachments which are the source of the exerted force are fixed. Wrestling however shows how the lever principle can be used outside the body. To prevent an opponent from turning by holding his arm on the mat it will be most effective to grasp the arm as close to the hand as possible with the arm fully extended at right angles to the body. Th is guarantees the greatest moment of force and the greatest mechanical advantage. Conversely if one wishes to turn an opponent quickly then a short force arm is required, an example being the use of a half-nelson where the force is applied at the shoulder. Kinesiology (the science of movement) helps the student - athlete to better understand the scientific principles which will enable him to train and perform at a higher level than before. These same principles can then be passed on to his own students when he becomes a qualified teacher/coach. CROSSING THE BAR The body's centre of gravity is considered in many sports activities: it can be located at about the height of the hips midway between the front and back of an individual who is standing erect or lying flat with arms at the side. If the attitude of the body or parts is changed then the c. of g. is changed. It is possible for the c. of g. to be located outside the body when performing such activities as vaulting or somersaults in gymnastics or diving. The modern styles of the High Jump have evolved because of a better knowledge and understanding of kinesiological principles. Research has shown that in the vertical jump some of the world's greatest jumpers - with their arms at their sides - have been able to raise their c. of g. only about two feet. Th is emphasizes the necessity of the application of sound mechanics principles and the perfecting of jumping techniques to achieve heights that exceed seven feet. If we take ALLOW FOR THE WIND Aerodynamics play a major role in such activ- ities as the discus and in the kicking or throwing of a football. The equation R CPSV 2 2 expresses the reaction resulting from the diversion of the air stream about a moving airborne body. R the resulting reaction. C = a numerical non-dimensional coefficient dependent upon the shape of the object and its attitude to the air stream. P = air pressure (15 lb./sq. in. at sea level). S = the active surface area of the object over which the air stream flows. V = the velocity of the air stream with respect to the object. 6 �pf a 100 yard sprinter, or running on a sharply a pole about 6 feet long and hold it vertically then let it drop so that it bounces straight back up, it will probably bounce only a few inches from the ground. If we throw it down it will bounce considerably higher. Let us repeat this experiment but, at the high point of the bounce, grab the pole at its mid-point (c. of g.) and turn it horizontally so that it is now parallel to the floor and is now four to five feet from the ground. Here we have indicated (very crudely) the essential differences between the Scissors style of high jumping and the lay-out styles currently used. In the Scissors style the jumper's c. of g. passes over the bar and is quite a considerable height above the bar because the jumper is almost in a sitting position at the peak of the jump. If, however, we lay-out as we cross the bar our c. of g. still passes above the bar but is much closer to it. In essence, for the same amount of force and energy expended, we should achieve a greater height. In the Western Roll, however, the whole of the body is - at some point - lying on its side above the bar. If we go a step further and use the Straddle style, or "flop" popularized by Fosbury or Debbie Brill we find that the body rotates around the bar and at no time are all parts of the body above the bar. Th is then gives the effect of the c. of g. passing under the bar thus again giving the capacity for achieving even greater heights. Other mechanics included in the well-executed high jump include: a) a vigorous stamping of the take-off foot hard against the ground (Newton's third law) and b) the forceful swinging up of the free leg and the arms to increase the lifting force of the body, showing the principle of transfer of momentum from part to whole. This principle can easily be experienced by trying to do a sit up from a back lying position, i) first with the arms to the side then, ii) starting with the arms stretched overhead with the backs of the hands touching the floor and initiating the movement by a vigorous upward and forward swing of the arms. banked indoor track, or a basketball player dribbling down court. The second application is deduced from the normal principles of friction. Since the friciton is the same whether the force which presses the two surfaces together is at one point or spread over a wide area it logically follows that if the total force is spread over a wide area then the force will not be as great at any one point as it would if it were concentrated at that particular point or a small area. Again, some of the problems can be alleviated by articial means and we find equipment constructed to "spread" the force of a blow. A catcher's mitt - compared with other player's gloves - is an example of the recognition of this principle. The "armour" worn by footballers and hockey players is designed to spread the force of an impact and also to transfer it from one part of the body to another. Shoulder pads are based on the cantilever principle with the intention of transferring the impact from the point of the shoulder to the flat less vulnerable surface areas. Over-weight boxing gloves used in training are not - as many people think - a training device to make the boxer's arms stronger or so the regular gloves will feel lighter in real combat but are designed to spread the force of a punch over a wider area thus lessening the chances of injury during sessions, a fact for which managers (and sparring partners), no doubt, are truly grateful! The same fundamental principles may be applied to the body itself without artificial aids. Learning to land correctly in Judo after being thrown is a good example of how to protect a particular part of the body from injury by absorbing the effects of the impact over as wide an area as possible. The fundamental movements of a layout should be employed when sliding into a base when as much as possible of the leg, hip and back should hit the ground simultaneously. POWER IS IMPORTANT In 1932 McCloy pointed out that the power used for performance varies with the cube of the velocity. Using the formula FRICTION HELPS OR HINDERS Principles of friction are put to good use in athletics in two different ways. The first and more obvious application concerns the problem of slipping and how to provide a higher coefficient of friction. Sometimes this is achieved by artificial means such as spiked shoes or specially located floor surfaces. Adverse conditions can, however, also be overcome by a sound knowledge of equilibrium and the use of appropriate body lean, examples of which could be the angle of inclination P = FY when P power F = force in lbs. in the direction of the motion V velocity of the body in the direction of the force McCloy demonstrated the difference in power units used in running the mile at a constant rate of speed and varying rates of speed. Using hypothetical 7 �the distance in four minutes. Great runners such as Bannister and Ryun utilized pacing methods to achieve their great performances and always had some energy left for that last 100 yards dash to the line. times and rates of speeds, two tables were produced showing the amount of energy expended when a) a constant rate of speed was maintained and, b) where a varying pace was used. In each case the distance was covered in four minutes 24 seconds. The power was found by calculating the cube of the velocity for each 220 yards. LIGHT LINEMEN CAN BE EFFECTIVE There are numerous other examples that could be cited where the knowledge and application of scientific principles play a vital role. Among them are the popular circuit training programmes where an athlete performs to his maximum. He then prepares a training "Circuit" of several activities, each one calculated from his maximum performance in each activity, the whole circuit to be achieved within a certain time limit. He can then make the circuit progressively more -demanding by -gradually ln~ creasing the number of repetitions of each activity, or by cutting down the time factor for the full circuit. Periodically he will re-test himself to determine a new training circuit based upon his improved maximum level. The famous "Crimson Tide" football team of the University of Alabama are noted for usually having a smaller line than the teams against which they play. They counter this by training their players to get off their marks more quickly than their opponents and - where possible - to hit them at an angle. Work it out. If you are a lineman in football and weigh 175 lbs. while your immediate opponent weighs 200 lbs., how much faster must you be moving - if you meet head-on - to be able to hold him for those vital split seconds after the ball is snapped? At what angle should you hit him to best deflect his forward progress. Theoretical? Perhaps, why not try it out? Whether we are counting the number of push-ups a student can perform, keeping the statistics of a game, or utilizing extremely sophisticated analytical techniques in research or coaching, the importance of the relationship between the sciences in general (and mathematics in particular) and athletics cannot be too strongly stressed. May the "jocks" and the "egg-heads" long continue and expand their joint ventures. Each group has much to offer the other. TABLE BASED ON CONSTANT RATE Time for 220 yards 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 264 secs. Speed in Ft. / Sec. 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Average= 20 Velocity ~~=~ ~~d 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 64000 power units used TABLE BASED ON VARYING RATES Time for 220 yards Speed in Ft. / Sec. 1 29 22.7 2 30 32 34 36 38 37 28 22.0 20.6 19.4 18.3 17.4 17.8 23.6 3 4 5 6 7 8 264 secs. Average= 20 Velocity Cubed or Power Used 11697 10648 8742 7301 6128 5268 5640 13146 68568 power units used The significance of the study is the fact that, although both runners had the same time for the mile, the one who ran at a constant speed used approximately 7% less power. At least two advantages can be noted: first, that a runner can, by "pacing" himself, match the time of a stronger runner who does not pace himself and, second, a runner can achieve a better time using the same energy if he masters the technique of pacing. As the famous Australian coach Lydiard, has said regarding the four-minute mile, "Most runners can do 440 yards in 60 seconds; with stamina added they can keep up that pace for four times 440 yards." Try to run 110 yards in 15 seconds - not a difficult task. Thirty seconds for a 220 yard canter? - quite easy. However, if you could maintain this pace for a mile you would cover t 8 �INTERVIEW WITH THE LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY GLASSBLOWER Ken Sumpter IS EDUCATION ROULETTE? Ken: What are you actually going to do in in this magazine? Us: Well, I'm not sure. The idea is not to try to professionalize it, but to write articles for the "ordinary" students in Grade 72 and 73. Our problem always is that we tend to make things too professional. I still think YOU could write one! Ken: I've got my own view about education as such, you know, particularly at this moment. It's a difficult job to promote a University to high school students. It's a fact that there are NO JOBS at this moment in time. It's like a game of roulette to pick a subject where you are going to find work because what looks good now .... Society does not truly recognize the fact that you need broader-based people who know things, but at a lower level. Everybody THINKS as specialists do when they start off. Somewhere along the way, you want an enlightened person who is not working at a very high level, but at a good level of their own competence. It's like the sort of thing that happens on a factory floor. You get a first class charge hand and the place runs like a clock. And they think, "Gee, he's a good fellow - we must get him up", and so they promote him into management and he comes up to a level of incompetence and he's stumbling about up there and he can't manage it. That's the sort of thing that happens. Us: I'd rather talk about YOU, though. You really won't write an article? You know, people are always turned on by glassblowing. Us: . . . . may look very different in ten years' time. Ken: Ken: Right! If I was going to do something, I'd probably do Physics because .... Yes, but you know it's only because it's something like action painting ... Us: Us: .... nobody's doing it. Sure, and what's wrong with that? And, by the way, the magazine is NOT to sell Lakehead University. Ken: A sort of "Science and Technology Gallops On", I suppose. "Everything is being produced but people haven't learned to live with it." Us: I'm sure the readers would be happy to know how you got into glassblowing. Ken: Yes, well, I worked in a research lab and I used to go watch the glassblower at lunch time and he al lowed to me practice. He said, "Do you want to do it permanently?", and the boss took me on: 23 years ago! Us: Did you apprentice? Ken: Well - not really. They CALLED me "apprentice" but I didn't have any indenture papers. The glassblower, he was working two days a week for Reading University, and one of the guys he was working with took the Chair at Hobart, in Tasmania: he asked the glassblower to go with him and I took over. Us: Did you have to go through the business of six months making the centrifuge tubes? Ken: No .... Us: .... But, if nothing else, there's an energy crisis and it's going to be solved by the Physicists. Ken: The universities now have got to completely alter their old way of thinking from a pure academic point of view. Education has DEFINITELY got to be pertinent to what's needed. For example, there's no good in teaching a guy pure Physics alone. A student has to mke up his-mind EARLY. Some people should have a wide variety of subjects, but a FEW should specialize early. Us: We need both kinds .... Ken: Yes, we need a balanced program. Us: Is what we want to get across in this magazine, the fact that they've got to be thinking about what they're going to be doing much earlier than they are now? NOT EVERYBODY CAN BE AT THE TOP Ken: IT'S A SLOW PROCESS One of the problems is, I think, that we've got an overspecialized society. Ken: 9 Oh, yeah! yeah! But the thing that was REALLY difficult was pulling concentric �got a lot backed up means that you worry about it, because nobody likes to wait and people are reasonable if you're reasonable with them. I think sometimes I get a little niggled, though I try not to be. But I found the trick is, if I get a guy occasionally is being a bit unthinking or something like that or he's in a hurry for his own job, he'll bring a job in that's DIRTY. That's the thing that REALLY annoys me when I get a greasy job. I clean it when he's left it dirty; it's quicker for me to clean it than chase after him. But, I found the trick is, if I DO blast anybody, I've got to then think about it afterwards, and if I come out and very often I'm not being fair, half the time I say, "I'm wrong, I'm sorry." It makes him feel better. It makes me feel better, and it doesn't cost anything. spears* out of bits of tubing, and I remember one time when I had been at it for about six months, I used to go home and worry about it. At one time, I would think I was getting pretty good, and then I would think, look at this stuff that I was going to have to make like diffusion pumps, and I'd think I'd NEVER get it. - "Look at the trouble I get into with a little 10 millimetre spear!". Slowly and surely the mistakes and breakages got fewer until in the end it came to be automatic. It's interesting, but at the same time, you can get yourself in a terrible emotional state over it. Us: Is it true that ALL glassblowers are emotional? Ken: Well, let's say a little edgy. Us: They're real artists, aren't they? Prima donnas. Ken: Yes, I know some temperam~ntal glassblowers who ARE difficult. But when a guy comes into your shop and wants something, it's not fair that you should rip into him because you just had a bad time with the piece of glass! You can be right on the last joint of a piece of work and you made a decision about ten moves before that which left you no way out. You thought you were going to sneak through without putting a proper asbestos bung in place and you found the cork you used instead burnt away and you can't blow into the system and you can't put your finger on it because it's too hot, and you watch the molten glass dripping away in front of your eyes and you get angry with yourself because, YOU, ... YOU .. , YOU'RE SO STUPID, THAT, ... THAT ... , THAT YOU KNOW IT WAS GOING TO HAPPEN. But you took a chance because you were rushing, when you should have disciplined yourself and said "No, let's do it properly and take your time." They say, "IT'S A GOOD GUY THAT CAN GET HIMSELF OUT OF TROUBLE BUT IT'S A BETTER GUY THAT DIDN'T GET HIMSELF INTO IT IN THE Fl RST PLACE." No, it's interesting and it's fulfilling, but it can be awful shattering. One of the worst things is when you've got a lot of work banked up and people are waiting for it and you've got some intricate work that needs all your attention. You've got this lot waiting for you to do and it's PRESSING. Us: Is it increasing in volume, or is it just about steady? Ken: Well, work here, oh yes, it gallops ahead. We've got some more graduate students coming in which means more racks and gadgets. Us: What's your major job at the moment? Ken: Well, I would think catalytic sy-stems. There are a lot of people working in Catalysis. And each one has got a different system. Now Dr. Hawton has just got back from N.R.C. full of ideas and there's a real big rack going up for him. Us: You mean N.R.C.? In Ottawa? Ken: Yes, I went down to see them and get some idea of what kind of work I had to do on those systems. They get bigger and bigger. They grow like Topsy and occasionally you have to cut the lot off and start again. They get so many new pieces added that it looks like ivy on the wall L.U. HAS TO BE RELEVANT Us: As somebody who sees the Faculty from outside, what do you think is the future of the University in this district? Ken: Well, I would think that it's going to alter to some extent. I think probably work that's going on in Chemistry is pertinent to the cleanup of automobile exhaust fumes, for instance. I think the University will not survive as a University without research, but I think at the same time it's got to be appropriate to the needs of the area or the province or the country. Us: Which brings us back to what we said at the beginning. The problem of specialization, IT COSTS NOTHING TO APOLOGIZE Us: Can't you lock the door? Ken: Well, you CAN, but the mere fact that you've * Concentric spears are drawn-out thin spikes of glass tubing, - Ed. Continued on next page at bottom right. 10 �INDUSTRY AND THE TECHNICAL GRADUATE OF THE 70'S By R. G. Lightfoot, - Dryden Paper Co. Ltd. volved - the rapid outdating of the knowledge learned in the academic halls, and the ability or perhaps desire of a person who is no longer in his or her early twenties to stay abreast of rapidly changing technology. The consequences of these two factors are very interesting. Consider, for example, industry's feeling that the performance of most technical people peaks in their early thirties and declines thereafter. Th is is reflected by the fact that companies are generally forced to decrease the complexity of job assignments of technical personnel after the age of thirty. The effect is also felt in salaries, with the purely technical people peaking before the age of forty. Does this all mean that young people choosing a technical career in industry are doomed to thirty years of downhill sliding after the initial challenging and rewarding ten years? Definitely not! What it does mean is that a technical person must recognize what will happen early and take appropriate action. This can consist of constant knowledge updating through formal classes or reading, or the person can embark on a second career. The latter approach often means moving into the supervisory and managerial areas and provides a much needed reservoir of talent for industry. The technical person must recognize that whichever road he chooses, a great deal of self development will be required. It is not easy to stay technically up to date, nor is it easy to suddenly become a manager of people, money and machines. For those who make the grade, the rewards both financially and from a self-satisfaction point of view are well worthwhile. t A MEMBER OF MANAGEMENT POINTS UP A PROBLEM Today's Canadian technical school or university graduate is more knowledgeable and better trained than ever before. And indeed he should be since much of the knowledge he has gained in his technical training has only been known for 10 to 20 years and he has had the benefit of some of the best technical facilities available in the world. Industry not only is aware of the qua Iity of these graduates, but very much requires their talents in order to survive in the highly competitive business world of the 70's. The future would thus appear to be assured for the technical youth preparing to enter industry. Such, however, is not the case. Three obstacles stand in the way: the supply and demand interrelationship, technical competence and technical obsolescence. During the S0's and 60's, the vast majority of technical graduates in Canada found ready employment. Engineers in particular were in demand. It was not uncommon for each graduate to have five or more job offers, with the recruiting companies having to really court the graduate. The net result was skyrocketing starting salaries, a great influx of students into the university science courses and the large scale entry of technicians and technologists onto the Canadian job scene. Not surprisingly, the supply of technically trained people soon outstripped demand, to the point where today's university or technical school graduate not only does not have a wide job choice, but is considered fortunate to be employed in this field at all! The business slowdown in Canada in the 70's certainly hasn't helped; however, even with business running full out, there are not enough openings to provide jobs for all the technical personnel available. Interview with the glassblower, Ken Sumpter Continued not just the problem of specialization of Faculty, but people who sit on moneygranting committees, that sort of thing. INDUSTRY MORE SELECTIVE The fact that the supply of technical graduates exceeds the demand also means that industry can be more selective in its hiring and personnel retaining policies. In other words, the graduates with the most to offer regarding knowledge, personality, appearance and promotability will still be very much in demand. The bottom half of the class and those judged not able to contribute effectively will not be so fortunate. The third career obstacle facing the technical graduate is knowledge obsolescence. Two factors are in- Ken: 11 One of the problems is, I think, that there are so many other things in Un iversity that deny the freedom of people being able to look more constructively at things, such as the political atmosphere in the University. Producing research papers is an important thing, but at the same time they've got to be of some relevance: we have to do things that matter. �TWENTY-MINUTE PUZZLE 1 2 ~ 7 .")- ;I • 5 4 3 6 ·. -:or· 8 11 10 9 12 13 14 15 16 I .• II 18 17 19 20 ACROSS 1. Does his law indicate he was partial to pressure? DOWN 2. [6/ 7. 8. 10. 12. 13. 14. 17. 18. 19. 20. The place for experiments (abbreviation) [3/ The first ''T'' in T.N.T. [3/ Abbreviation for a one molar solution! [2/ A unit of radiation or the place to put antifreeze in your car (abbreviation) [3/ In the electrolysis of sodium chloride, this is where you can collect chlorine. /5/ One of the nob le gases. [ 4 / Abbreviation for a type of radiation of wavelength greater than 8000 Aapprox. [2/ A unit of electrostatics (abbreviation) [3/ A system of units (abbreviation) based on metric system. [3/ Symbol for manganese. [2/ 3. 4. Common name of the double salt of potassium sulphate and aluminium sulphate. {4/ Symbol for the first of the rare earths. [2/ Serious disease (abbreviation) or symbol for a rare earth element [2/ 5. and 6. 9. 10. 11. 15. 18. The gas for comedians? /7, 5/ Madame Curie first isolated this element. /6/ The bonding type in sodium chloride. /5/ An early method for the extraction of native gold. [3/ A unit of energy. /3/ Symbol for an element named after a continent. [2/ A prize for the best clue to 16! SOLUTION IN NEXT ISSUE ..... . 12 �REFLECTION ON LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY By Gary Human UNIVERSITY HELPFUL Let me now suggest to you the assistance I have found available to the teacher from the staff of L. U. Specifically, the staff of the Chemical I nstrumentation Lab have offered to supply my grade 13 chemistry class with all the necessary graphs and films to enhance the Instrumentation section of Chapter 20 of Toon and EIiis's "Foundation of Chemistry". Further to this, the inorganic lab under the direction of Dr. Holah has offered to run grade 13 labs dealing with experiments on pollution. Other professors have indicated an interest in assisting when and where requested. Although this article may tend to be brief in words it is intended to be rather long in praise of an excellent summer course. I thank you for your attention and consideration given to this one student's opinion. t TEACHER MEETS PROFESSORS Th is summer I had occasion to attend Lakehead University and enroll in the Chemical Instrumentation Course offered by the Science Department. Th is was a rather unique experience in that it was the first science course I had taken since graduating with a BSc in 1964. Some pertinent objective observations are herewith enclosed. The course left nothing to be desired, in that it included both the theory and practical application of the Mass Spectrometer, I.R., Spectrophotometer, N.M.R., and X-ray Diffraction. I believe that the key of the course was the emphasis on learning how to operate all the above mentioned instruments, then how to interpret the data included in the resulting graphs and films. So much for the course .... now to discuss the two intended points of this article: how does the Lakehead University Science Department approach learning processes of its students, and how can a course of this nature eventually assist the science teacher? Suffice to say that L.U.'s Science Department surrounds itself with an excellent facility and, I should imagine, a fairly substantial budget. The more important aspect of this department, however, is the staff, who for the most part are some of the finest people I have occasion to work with. Speaking from a completely personal point of view it was noted that once a student's desire to learn has been established, then there was no end to the assistance that made itself available, not only in terms of the immediate assigned instructor or assistants but also from the specialists thoughout the department who tended to show a genuine concern for the students. At this point allow me to make mention to one Dr. Tom Griffiths. On first meeting this gentleman you may be inclined to consider him to be a rather blunt, academic and extremely practical individual. However, after thoroughly enjoying a six week course with him you will realize that he is, in fact, a blunt, academic and extremely practical individual - who will stay by you for hours on end until you have satisfied yourself that you have grasped the situation! Dr. Griffiths surrounds himself with two excellent lab assistants who will bend over backwards to help you gain a full working knowledge of the instrument under study. WHISKY By George Anderson A SCOTTISH TECHNICIAN LOOKS AT SCOTCH The art of whisky distillation is practiced in several countries, notably Canada, the United States, Ireland and Scotland. However, the Scottish product has probably achieved the highest standing internationally, exports of Scotch being world wide. The name whisky (the alternative spelling of "whiskey" is used for the Irish product) is an anglicized version of the Gaelic uisge beatha, which means "water of life" ~nd this expression is believed to have originated from the Latin, aqua vitae. In the production of Scotch whisky, two somewhat different methods are employed, resulting in two types of whiskies which are known as Grain Whiskies and Malt Whiskies. For malt whisky, barley is soaked in water for two or three days, then it is spread out and kept moist and warm for a further period of eight to twelve days. The water used for the fermentation of the grain is taken from springs which have risen through granite or peat and distilleries are located close to reliable sources of such water. Under these conditions, the barley germ- (Continued on page 23) 13 �AN OPINION OF SCIENCE AT L.U. By our old friend, Anonymous [He is NOT a member of the Establishment - far from it! - Ed.] female) bring years of experience with them to the university. Unlike some other faculties at Lakehead U., Science has a large number of Canadians in its ranks. With well over 20% of the full professors native Canadians,* the Science Faculty is relatively abundant in Canadian content. [*and many other naturalized - Ed.] The backbones of the science departments are undoubtedly the technical support staff. It is the technicians who do the unspectacular chores that are so necessary for operation of the department. Technicians clean glassware, align spectrometers, tune r-f receivers, prepare instruction laboratories and sweep floors. They have an important role in research, assisting faculty members in• the preparation and operation of laboratory apparatus. The technicians at L.U. are almost as cosmopolitan as the faculty. Although most of the technicians originate from the British Isles; Finiand, Woodstock Nation and Canada are well represented. L.U. is most fortunate to have such highly skilled individuals choose Thunder Bay as their home. A university may have highly rated professors and technicians but without the proper facilities, quality science instruction and research cannot be obtained. Lakehead U. is slowly acquiring the best of modern research tools available as well as a full complement of student labware. The Science Department is now located in the recently completed Centennial Building. With its well lit interiors, conveniently arranged laboratories and spacious hallways, the Centennial Building has proved to be a tribute to its designers. The amount of scientific equipment at Lakehead U. is enormous. There are many varieties of spectrometers, including a mass spectrometer. As well as the usual large numbers of conventional light microscopes, there is a Phillips High Resolution Electron Microscope. Large numbers and forms of vacuum systems can be found throughout the building, many capable of reaching 10- 10 Torr. Chemistry has excel lent chromatagraph setups. Important support facilities such as the glass blowing 1·ab, lntrumentation's electronic diagnostic equipment, a competent machine shop, as well as various photographic darkrooms are dispersed throughout the building. For its size, Lakehead University's Science Department is quite sufficiently stocked with the required apparatus needed in modern science. L.U. SCIENTISTS AND TECHNICIANS "GOOD" ON THE WHOLE The general concensus is that one must allot a certain quota of one's time and energy to the earnings of one's living. The alternatives are very grim; being perhaps prison, drug addiction, or maybe politics! With that in mind, most citizens spend a portion of their day at the corporation or institution of their choice. I had developed a keen interest in science on the day I got 92% in physics without studying, so when my day of decision came I took the path of least resistance. Having been a member of Lakehead University's science community for approximately three years now, I have had time to consider, both qualitativley and quantitatively, the relative importance of Lakehead University's Science Faculty. Hereforth lie some of my impressions. Lakehead U., like all other institutions, has a book of rules that is necessary for its operation in the manner it does. The constitution seems to imply a form of democracy, but as usual the principles work for the principals. The University is divided into three or four camps, being termed Faculties in this case, with the President as supreme commander. And of course there is the beaureaucracy to keep everything businesslike. Since L.U. evolved from a technical school, it is not surprising that science has played an integral part in the development of the university. With the addition of the Centennial Building in 1969, the Science Departments gained full laboratory facilities for research and student instruction. Science now had some excellent research apparatus and a skilled technical support staff to complement the highly qualified teaching staff. TECHNICAL STAFF ARE AS IMPORTANT AS FACULTY MEMBERS A look at the credentials of members of the science faculty shows them to be an impressive group. They have long lists of degrees from MIT, Glasgow, London, Toronto and Iowa. Some of these scientists have come from as far as Texas, from Ireland al"ld London, from Vienna and Geneva and from Newfoundland to join the Faculty of Science at Lakehead U. All of these men and women (women seem to be in the minority, with only approximately 1.88% of the faculty being 14 �RESEARCH IS LOCALLY ORIENTED A multitude of research projects are being conducted on these machines at L.U. The chemistry department currently is conducting a co-ordinated study of catalysts from which industrialists may benefit greatly. This project involves a large number research tools including the mass spectrometer, the electron microscope and a number of chromatographs. An interesting study is being staged by Lakehead University biologists on mineral uptake in the leafs of vegetation located near mining areas. Information gathered here may be of significant interest to prospectors in their efforts to develop Northern Ontario. Geology, working closely with the local mining business, is slowly obtaining information on the structure of the bottom of Lake Superior, using machines such as rock crushers and x-ray spectrometer. Solid state research is conducted by some members of the physics department, requiring sophisticated electronic apparatus. The electronic industry has a constant need for new discoveries in this field. Modern business is using complex mathematical methods increasingly everyday. Mathematicians at L.U. have a large I.B.M. computer at their disposal for their formulations. Last but not least are the students which actually are the reason for the existence of Lakehead University. Students come to L.U. from as far west as Hong Kong; from Nova Scotia, Texas and Kenora. Hundreds of undergraduates are processed by the Science Department annually. Once processed, science graduates then enter the fields of opportunity that are available to science graduates in Canada. A few of the more competent graduates are absorbed into one of the master programs at Lakehead University. For the next few years they are initiated into the field of scientific research as they work in the labs till late at night, tutor students and assist professors in their paper production. structure. My job requires a bit of skill and is quite satisfying at times. The impression that L.U. has made on me so far is that with its feudal power structure it compares quite favorably with other institutions of its size and rank. The Science Departments, I feel, especially chemistry, are of excellent quality. Chemistry graduates have done well at other universities. Faculty members that I am acquainted with are pretty good people, most work fairly hard, some are conducting some interesting research. The technicians are almost totally a good lot. Lakehead University is entering a new period under the leadership of newly appointed president Dr. Booth. Since Dr. Booth is a respected practicing scientist, Lakehead University's Science Department can look forward to a bright future. I personally am of the opinion that if one must have a science degree then one might as well take it at L.U. t SMALL UNIVERSITY ADVANTAGEOUS One of the advantages of a small university like L.U. is the accessability of expensive science apparatus, the use of which is so necessary to modern research. Undergraduates become acquainted with such instruments as the electron microscope as early as the third year. The use of spectrometers such as the Infra-Red Spectrophotometer are important in chemistry instruction from the second year on. Graduate students have almost free access to most research apparatus as well as the skills of countless technicians. This is the environment that I enter at nine and leave at five. I am positioned rather low in the 15 �HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS ASSESS BLEACHES has a stock sulution from which he can take a number of 25 ml portions for titration until consistent results are obtained. To each portion is added about 10 ml of dilute acetic acid and an excess of about 1 - 2 gm of potassium iodide. Most of the students recognize the brown colour of iodine. (l 2 ) as it is formed. The quantity of 12 that has been oxidized from the iodide ion is proportional to the amount of available chlorine. The last step in the analysis is to measure the amount of 12 by reducing it back to 1- using a suitable reducing agent of accurably known strength, such as 0.1 molar sodium thiosulfate. Students from Northwestern Ontario High Schools have been doing their own consumer research in the University's chemistry department. Under the expert guidance of Dr. Holah, they have been checking up on the manufacturers of laundry bleach. The active bleaching agent, as the bottle labels state, is sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), usually in the form of a 5% solution. The strength of a bleaching solution may also be expressed as the amount of "available chlorine", which is the amount of chlorine which can be "liberated" from the solution by simple chemical processes. It's the chlorine that does the job. The students are provided with bottles of Javex, White Magic, French Maid, A & P and so on. They find three things: - - 2S 2 0 3 1) The percentage of NaOCl, which is compared with the manufacturer's figure on the bottle; 2) The percentage of "available chlorine", which is also compared with the manufacturer's figure; 3) What every housewife is interested in - the "Best Buy.'' From the volume of the bottle, the price and the percentages, the student evaluates the order of bleaching value for dollar spent. 12 2S 2 0 3 For the chemistry buffs, here is the prescription prepared by Dr. Holah. THE ASSESSMENT OF BLEACHES By Dave Holah The basic chemistry involved is the fact that the hypochlorite ion is a good oxidizing agent in dilute acid solutions, and will oxidize iodide ion to iodine. + 2H+ + Cl 21 + 12 ➔ S406 ➔ 21 =+ 12 ➔ = S406 = + 21- BLUE COLOUR IS THE KEY He therefore can titrate the iodine solution with thiosulfate and watch the brown 12 colour slowly fade. Most of the students are familiar with the intense blue colour formed by the interaction of 12 and starch, and this is used to mark the end point of the titration. Thus, when most of the brown 12 has been reduced and the solution is a pale yellow colour, a few drops of starch solution are added to give the deep blue colour. The thiosulfate addition is continued slowly until very suddenly, within one drop, the blue colour (and hence the 12 ) is discharged and the solution becomes perfectly clear. One of the problems is that the students are often confused about which solutions must be pipetted accurately and which can be handled in a much more casual manner with a crude measuring cylinder, and it is not until the student understands the chemical reactions that this point is made clear. The experiment is popular with the students, since it rel"ates some of their school chemistry (1 2 -starch) with consumer products, and ends with a result that may be of use to them (or their parents) in terms of deciding which bleach to purchase. It also lets them use analytical equipment which most of them have not touched in the school. The answer? Most students agree that _ _ __ is the best. We deliberately leave you guessing - if you want to know the answer, ask somebody who has done it! (Or ask Dr. Holah to let you do it for yourself). OCl = + H20 The student begins by pipetting 10 ml of bleach (usually directly into his mouth at the first attempt)* and diluting to 250 ml with distilled water. He then * It's not dangerous - just unpleasant. 16 �THE MYSTICAL WOLF By George Ozburn their food supply. To cry wolf then would suggest that the mighty deer stalker has spent too much time in the concrete jungle and lost his ability to read the nature's sign boards. A recent study of the Isle Roy ale wolf suggests that the wolves appear to keep the moose herd within its food supply, cull undesirable individuals such as the old and the parasitized; and also, to stimulate reproduction. On this island ecosystem, the wolves will probably remain in a very dynamic equilibrium due to little intervention by man. The city dweller should be overjoyed if in some outward bound movement, country is reached where the eerie howl of a wolf may be heard in the stillness of the night. There might then still be a hope of your seeing one of these beautifully graceful creatures. t OZBURN KNOWS HIS WOLVES Have you ever seen a wolf? Perhaps if you have travelled the Algonquin Park trails, the Temogami Lake or Quetico area, you have heard one. My first experience with them was near Bear Island on Temogami Lake while camping. During two consecutive nights they howled outside our lean-to. In the early morning we looked carefully trying to establish where they really were, but they didn't even leave a track. My next contact was some years later - with their tracks - fresh on new fallen snow. I have often thought back to those first wolf tracks which my companion assured me were those of the terrible wolf. We own huskies and after a few years of mushing, one sees many foot prints of various shapes, any of them could be those of a wolf. Finally while winter fishing on a lonely lake, I saw my first live wolf in the wild. We spent a glorious half hour observing these graceful creatures playing, romping after one another, chasing their tails; but are they shy! They caught wind of us as we cautiously stalked them along the shoreline and suddenly were gone like ghosts. From the air in the winter they are very easy to spot. Flying just at dawn on a clear frosty morning it's easy to spot a set of tracks and follow. Often they are returning along the edge of a frozen waterway after a night's foraging. Frequently they are even found quite close to town. They are often quite defenseless. The -snow in the bush is deep and soft so they try to outrun the plane on the hard pack of the lake. It's no wonder so many people take advantage of them and hunt them this way. These people really aren't hunters. The late Jack Miner for all his wonderful work with bird conservation was very short sighted about nature's wonderful biological selection force, the wolf. He reportedly sighted them as cold blooded killers, destroying deer herds. Granted in some parts of the country where snows are frequently very heavy, the depth of snow serves the same function. When deer hunting falls off, we need a scrapegoat. Since the average city dweller never sees the great outdoors in the mid winter and doesn't realize the other hardships, he promptly blames the wolf. The result? These predators are called "varmint". Yet, predators cannot become too abundant. They can never increase beyond the limits set by availability of food. If they are very abundant. then so must be l7 �THE FIFTH WHEEL By Charles Mallard ENGINE OUTPUT COMPARED WITH FACT ORY RA Tl NG The Plymouth Cricket, an English built import, when introduced to the North American continent, was assigned a very optimistic horsepower rating. The 1972 models have since been defactored to a more realistic power rating and a more powerful motor has been added as an option. It was my intent to calculate the engine output of my car and make a comparison ~etween the factory ratings. The motor could then have been modified and more comparisons made. The construction of the fifth wheel was simple, although time consuming. It consisted essentially of an aluminum Y shaped frame and a 26" bicycle wheel upon which three magnets were attached. As the wheel rotates, the magnets pass a reed switch mounted on the frame. The switch opens and closes sending pulses (supplied by a flashlight battery) to the tape recorder. The number of pulses per second is proportional to the car's speed, e.g., 30 pulse/sec = 40 mph. The frequency of the pulses is obtained from the tape recording which is fed into a pulse counter. The graph is then plotted by hand. GIRLS OR CARS? Last year the second year students taking Dr. Hart's mechanical physics course 2e4 were allowed to conduct an experiment of their own choice. The nature of the experiment was entirely up to the students and materials needed would be provided, on condition that the students construct the necessary equipment themselves if it were not readily available. Unfortunately, the experiment had to be designed with some basic physics involved, so I had to rule out the plan to interview every beautiful woman in Thunder Bay and compile a very comprehensive black book for myself. I still can't understand why Dr. Hart couldn't see the physical aspects of such an experiment, but be that as it may, I elected to change the concept of the experiment entirely and construct a "fifth wheel" for my car. The fifth wheel is literally, as its name implies, a fifth wheel which is towed at the rear of a vehicle. It is, in essence, an electric speedometer from which a record of the vehicle's speed may be recorded. It is electronic in nature and does not have the errors common to mechanical devices such as a car speedometer. However, the most advantageous aspect of such an instrument is that the car's speed may be recorded as a function of time by feeding the data into a portable casette tape recorder. There is no need to use a stop watch and comments can be recorded directly onto the same tape. The basic idea to construct such an instrument arose from my keen interest in the technical aspects of automobiles and my desire to evaluate the performance of my 1971 Plymouth Cricket. Fifth wheels are used extensively for road testing cars (acceleration and braking capabilities) and the results are published in numerous car magazines. However, to my knowledge, no such test has been carried out on this particular car. I could therefore obtain this data first hand with such an instrument. It is also possible, by making use of a few simple laws of physics and elementary mathematics to obtain more useful data such as drag (wind and rolling resistance) versus car speed, and rear wheel brake horsepower and torque as a function of engine rpm. Such data would enable the calculation of theoretical top speed and optimum rpm shift point in each gear. A graph could be constructed which indicates the rear wheel horsepower required to maintain the car at any given speed and it could be extrapolated or an equation devised to show how much of an increase in HP is required to produce an increase in top speed and/or acceleration. NOT ALL UNDERGRADUATES EXPERIMENTS BORING Unfortunately, because of poor magnet alignment and improper tire balance, we were unable to obtain consistent readings above 50 mph. The arrangement of the magnets was changed so that we could use two magnets and two reed switches and allow more precise alignment of the magnet. This setup has not yet been tested and therefore the desired data have not been obtained. However, the fifth wheel doe~ work (hopefully above 50 mph now) and with a fair degree of accuracy (+ 1 mph). The entire project cost very little and although the aims of the experiment have not been fulfilled completely the results thus far are very rewarding. It just goes to prove that not all experiments are boring. 18 �LIBERAL SCIENCE PROGRAM It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of science in today's careening technological world. Science is the only branch of human enquiry which applies itself to the systematic observation and interpretation of our physical environment. As such, science provides a fountain of well-defined data upon which to base important judgements which must be made now if we are to survive. The influence of science and technology upon modern man staggers the imagination. And yet, there have been very few systematic attempts to bring th is home to future teachers, legislators and decisionmakers. The Liberal Science Program aims at giving such people a broad view of science, rather than producing professional scientists. The program brings science out of the confines of the laboratory in order to explain its effects upon man and his environment, and also to explore ways in which science can influence our daily lives for the better. Students entering the Liberal Science Program must have successfully completed Grade 13. But science and mathematics are not prerequisite, as they are for other programs in the F acuity of Science. Requirements include a mature mind and a desire to understand the role of science. Liberal Science students may concentrate on any Arts subjects to meet the requirements of the program. Indeed, it is essentially designed to provide a broad background in science study for students specializing in the social sciences, humanities, or education. It is extremely flexible, allowing easy transfer in and out of the program from other Arts and Science programs. In addition to at least three subjects from the Faculty of Science and up to seven from the Facuity of Arts, the three-year Liberal Science Degree Program requires at least five of the following courses: A brief treatment of the physical features of the Earth is followed by an examination of the interrelations among organisms and between organisms and their environment. Questions of conservation, pollution, and the future of man are discussed at length. L.S. 103 Chemistry and Man - This is a survey of those aspects of chemistry which affect our lives every day. The material will include a general historical introduction. Following this, a basic understanding will be provided for such popular activities as photography, wine-making and pottery. Also, such topics as the energy crisis, birth control, pollution, physical and mental health, the use and misuse of drugs will be discussed from a chemical viewpoint. L.S. 104 The Physical Nature of the Earth - The general physical and chemical principles relating to the origin and development of the Earth are the main focus of this course. Particular concerns include the external and internal processes which are constantly forming and deforming the Earth's crust, laboratory work in the mineralogy and petrography of the principal rock types, the identification and use of fossils as indicators of relative time, and the interpretation of geological maps. L.S. 105 Contemporary Physical Thought Important scientific literature is often ignored because its language is too technical or mathematical for the general reader. This course purposes to interpret such writings to promote understanding in the theories of the Universe and its creation, in the laws of physical science, and in recent scientific thought. Proficiency in mathematics is not required. L.S. 107 Mathematics - the Analytical Tool of Science - Mathematics has always been indispensable in the formulation of theories and the solution of problems, both in the traditional disciplines and in the newer social sciences. This course outlines the way in which the "mathematical method" has influenced the study and application of science throughout its history. L.S. 100 Science and Man - The profound influence of science on the individual and society is the central focus of th is course. The effects of great experiments and theories on the development of civilization are studied in detail. The relationships between science, technology, philosophy and politics are identified and discussed. Also, the role of science in determining the way we think and act is probed as far as possible. L.S. 101 Science in an Age of Machines - The explosive development of technology has led to qualitative changes in the nature of the Earth. This course studies the effects of manipulative techniques on man's environment. L.S. 108 Astronomy - This course is designed to acquaint the student with the principal features of the Solar system, our Galaxy, and the known Universe. The student will make observations of the moon, planets and stars, plot their movements and deduce some of their properties. Photographs from observatories will supplement the student's observations. No previous background in physics or mathematics is required. L.S. 102 Natural Science - Th is course aims at a unified understanding of the basic principals of nature. 19 �KEN SUMPTER "Education has DEFINITELY got to be pertinent" "By such methods of dating .... !" �~ DR. HOLAH . ... AND FRIENDS "Ask him .... to let you do it for yourself!" DR. OZBURN "when deer hunting falls off, we need a scapegoat" �A STUDENT'S VIEW OF THE LIBERAL SCIENCE PROGRAM By Gloria McNeil! Science, Chemistry and Man, Astronomy and Problems in Pollution will do. The Liberal Science programs offers the freshman university student a chance to experience a wide spectrum of courses without being committed to one specific discipline. If upon deciding that he prefers one subject over others, he may concentrate in that field in subsequent years. In fact, the Liberal Science program is designed such that "the student after first or second year would be able to transfer into a major or honours program in Science or Arts", as stated on page 139 in the 1972-1973 Lakehead University Calendar. This eliminates the problem of choosing a specific discipline for the uncertain firstyear student. A UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY? The Liberal Science program offers a unique opportunity for different sectors of the community. It gives teachers, politicians, housewives, and generally all persons interested in taking university courses for enjoyment, the chance to experience fields of study they would normally not come in contact with (or desire to come in contact with!} Teachers who have indulged in Liberal Science courses have a greatly enriched reservoir of knowledge to draw upon when dealing with their students. This aspect is most important to the public school teacher for he, by himself, must deliver to a group of thirty or more youngsters a general education. Spelling, literature, grammar, arithmetic and reading do not suffice, for these will equip the students with only the essentials of an education. Children must know more about this world in which they live, grow, work and play; and it is up to their teachers to make sure that they do. Thus, it is wise for the teacher who is in pursuit of his university degree to major in Liberal Science rather than narrow his spectrum of knowledge by majoring in a specific subject. By choosing the Liberal Science program as his area of study, he will acquire a general education in the realm of both arts and science. Not only he, himself, but all his students will benefit. THERE ARE SOME SNAGS Despite its apparent benefits, the Liberal Science program contains a number of drawbacks as well. Of the nine courses calendared as Liberal Science courses, five are in actuality courses which have been drawn from other departments and renamed as Liberal Science courses! Hence, these courses do not cater to the Liberal Science student (as for instance, an English course would cater to a student who is an English major}. Rather, these courses are geared towards those students who intend to major in the related discipline. For example, LS 104 - The Physical Nature of the Earth - is merely Geology 1 a6 which is the first-year geology course for specialist students who wish to continue in the field of Geology. The Liberal Science student, however, would mistakenly think this course to be geared towards himself, since it is calendared as LS 104. No separate Liberal Science Department exists. Therefore a lack of continuity is to be expected within the "non-department". The professors who teach Liberal Science courses have been drawn from other departments, and they do not relate to themselves as Liberal Science professors, but rather they see themselves as professors from their respective areas of study. To be efficient and therefore beneficial to the student, it would be desirable if all Liberal Science professors were to be located in adjoining offices. This would help to remove the amorphous identity of Liberal Science and would allow for easy student-faculty contact. The Liberal Science program as it stands now is a program without an identity but, on the other POLITICIANS AND VOTING PUBLIC SHOULD UNDERSTAND SCIENCE Politicians and the voting public, too, will benefit if they choose to study within the Liberal Science program. It is the politicians who decide what laws might aid the community and it is the voting publicthat is, the residents of the community - who decide whether or not these proposed laws are relevant. Such contemporary problems as drug and alcohol abuse, air land and water pollution, the necessity for and goals of space probes, improper use of our land and natural resources, and many others must be dealt with. But how can men who in actual fact know nothing of the causes and consequences of these problems propose laws which will solve them? And, how can the public vote intelligently on these issues when they, too, know just as little? It is most necessary for politicians and the voters to acquire a general knowledge about these contemporary issues and this is what Liberal Science courses such as Science and Man, Natural 22 �barley, a method of drying unique to Scotch whisky. The dried barley is ~ext infused with hot water, cooled, fermented with yeast for several days and then distilled twice in large copper stills. Part of the second distillation is collected and matured. hand, a program with much potential. Perhaps, once more courses are developed which are truly and only Liberal Science courses, and once its professors establish themselves as belonging to a new Department, then students will be able to acknowledge its existence. At present a great number of Lakehead Unviersity students do not even know that such a department and program exists, while even those that are aware know nothing about it. SMOKE AND WATER PRODUCE FLAVOUR Two factors are generally regarded as being responsible for the distinctive flavour of Scotch whisky the peat smoke and the water. Grain whisky is produced by a similar process to that described for malt whisky, except that a mixture of barley and corn is used and the distillation is a continuous one. Other whiskies also use a mixture of grains. Most brands of Scotch sold are blends of: grain and malt whiskies, some blenders say they use "upwards of 40'' whiskies from different areas of Scotland to achieve their desired end. Scotch is matured in oak casts (which used to be old sherry casks) for a minimum period of three years, although somewhiskiesmay be left to mature for more than ten years. In the cask, changes take place in the minor constituents of the liquor. Some of the acids and alcohols present will combine to increase the ester content while, because of the porous nature of the cask, air can reach the liquor and combine with certain alcohols to form aldehydes. Tannin and furfural (another aldehyde) may be extracted from the wood of the cask. Although these substances are present in only small quantities, they nevertheless determine to a significant degree the final flavour of all distilled liquors. The predominant constituents of all whiskies are of course ethyl alcohol and water, but the differences found in the important minor components are interesting to compare. These figures are of course approximate and vary with brand. CONTENT IS VERY GOOD However, the program content is very good, for it ensures that students will attain a general education that has a strong base in science. The scienceorientated Liberal Science courses, both those unique to the Liberal Science program and those borrowed from other departments, teach us more about the nature of our universe, our world and life itself. Meanwhile the arts-orientated Liberal Science courses further our knowledge of ourselves. There should be more courses like LS 109 Problems in Pollution - which deal with contemporary problems. These courses could be instructed by using social science and scientific principles to explain the causes and the impact the problems are having. Many guest lecturers are available in Thunder Bay who could supplement the courses. For example, spokesmen from the Ontario Water Resources Commission could speak on water pollution; spokesmen from the Lands and Forests could speak on problems in our timberlands and forest mammals; spokesmen from the Health and Community Information Centre could speak on social problems. These guest lecturers would thus be able to link the information that a student receives in his courses to situations in the real world outside. We must ensure, however, that any new Liberal Science courses developed are developed for the needs of the Liberal Science students. Apart from its deficiencies, the Liberal Science program would become a highly valuable department within the university and the community at large. Grams I 100 litres at 100 proof Canadian Scotch Blended Blended *Fusel Oils t [ Many of Gloria's criticisms have been acted upon, and we are grateful to her for making them - Ed./ 60 150 Acids 20 15 70 Ester 10 20 60 Aldehydes 3 10 5 7 10 50 20 100 10 50 130 200 Furfural Tannin Total Solids WHISKY - Continued from page 73. Straitht Bour on 200 *Fusel oils are liquids produced during fermentation and are mainly composed of amyl alcohols along with some lower alcohols. inates and the starches are converted by the action of enzymes into fermentable sugars. When the sprouts on the barley are about three-quarters of an inch long, this stage is complete and the -grain is collected and spread out on screens over a peat fire to dry. The peat smoke can make direct contact with the malted Whisky is, of course, an intoxicant. The word "intoxicant" comes from the Greek toxican, meaning poison (especially for arrow tips!) It's insidious stuff, and those fuse/ oils can play the very devil with the brain. ) (Editor's note: 23 �THE REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLUE GOURAMI By John H. Kelleher RESULTS MORE STIMULATING TO STUDENTS LOVING FISH PROVIDE CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS LESSON Ethology, which is the biological study of animal behaviour, offers a wide variety of research activities. Included in this research is the study of the reproductive behaviour of fish. Such a study should capture the imagination and enthusiasm of many students from the elementary to the college level. Some students may find themselves capable of not only reading the current research literature in Ethoiogy but also of contributing to it. While most ethological studies take place outdoors, there is some work that can be done indoors. In the latter case, the reproductive behaviour of fish could easily be studied as most schools have the required equipment. The blue gourami were chosen for this investigation because they are available locally, are inexpensive, easy to keep, and have been reported in the literature Rubbing ~g Spawning TOTAL Observed 13 10 12 35 Miller 42 50 46 138 Expected (see App)j 11 13 12 36 On the basis of the above data, for 2 df and a chi-square value of 1.05 (see Appendix), the differences between observed and expected are not significant at the .05 level. That is, there are more than 5 chances in 100 that the above differences could be accounted for by chance alone. The 35 observations that I made were reported during one mating session, so I assumed the 1 38 observations of Miller were based on at least three mating sessions. Therefore, it would appear that the observations of more than one mating session did not yield results that were significantly different. In a chi-square analysis the researcher compares the observed results to the expected or chance results. For example, in the present study the chisquare is generally illustrated by reference to one of Mendel's experiments on the colour and shape of pea seeds. However, it was my experience that most students were not impressed with the application of the chi-square test to the results of Mendel's experiments. Therefore, the present study might help, but is not limited to, the instructor who is looking for supplementary material on the topic of chi-square. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR COMPARED The purpose of this study was to find out if there was any significant difference between my observations of blue gourami reporductive behaviour and similar observations reported by Mill er (1964) 1 . The latter observations served as the basis for calculating the expected res~lts (See Appendix on page 26) Two large blue gouramis were placed in a 20 gallon (U.S.) tank. In addition, the aquarium had a gravel bottom, a few mystery snails, assorted aquatic plants and a cup. The cup was left in one corner of the tank in order to provide a hiding place for the female during reproduction. The fish were fed a varied diet twice a day. The water temperature was kept at 80° ± 2° F. Room and aquarium lighting automatically turned on and off providing a 15 hour photo-period. In order to avoid ambiguity, I chose only three clearly defined stages of reproductive behaviour: rubbing, clasping, and spawning. For pictures of each of these stages the reader is referred to the research reported by Mi Iler. (Continued on page 28) Miller, R.S. Studies on the social behavior of the blue gourami, Trichogaster trichopterus (Pisces, Belontiidae), 1964, Copeia, No. 3, 469-496. 24 �FROM HIGH SCHOOL ON: A CASE FOR BIOLOGY By Claude Garton is a broad one and full of wonder. Whatever the animal, if we get to know more about it, we feel a fellowship that is part of a good life. Genetics js a science that has a special appeal to many. It is the study of inheritance. No two individuals of any species are exactly alike. Why so many similarities? In the past century, great advances have been made in this field. We even read that we are on the way to being able to create life. If you wish to specialize there are many subfields in Biology: ornithology, entomology, morphology, and enough -ologies to fill several pages. It is hoped you will delve into some of these in your studies, in school or out. Applied biology is a growing field. For example, a real problem today is pollution. Its correction and prevention can come about only if all of us know and observe the basic laws of ecology. Soclology, people living together, is only a part of ecology, all things living and thriving together. Whether we become a doctor, salesman, a factory worker or whatever, we can become a better, happier person if we know the living things around us. For those who are about to go on to further studies, Biology should be part of them. No matter what your chosen field, it can help you if only as an escape, a hobby. And do remember reading about living things, hearing about them, seeing them in pictures is no substitute for the real thing. To get out and live with them is to make them truly a part of your life. People, animals, plants, they are our heritage. t LIFE CAN BE ENJOYABLE All living is a challenge. Nature has no room for loser,: sooner or later the unfit are discarded what about you? Man, a social animal, has created a complicated pattern for living: where will you fit in? How can you have a happy, rewarding future as an essential part of humanity, working with those forces that lead us forward and, we hope, upward? Too often we blame the past generations for errors, but no one can undo the events of yesterday. Some mistakes are irreparable and all we can do is make today better so that tomorrow will give us fewer regrets. Nor can we escape from the technical society. No longer can one get away into the wilderness and live his own life cut off from other people, as we sometimes wish to. The more one learns about life and living, the more one can enjoy it, and as we explore the biological sciences doors are opened that give a deeper meaning to our everyday life. Biology, the study of life and living, does not have all the answers, and it never will. But it can help you, an individual, fit into living, so that in the fifty-odd years ahead, you become cognizant of self, and in sympathy w.ith people and the living world around you. A young gas station attendant, a senior high school student, remarked to me this past summer. "I wish I had the chance to learn about plants and animals. I'd like to go into biology." I pointed out to him although Biology is not particularly recommended as a career it does open the way to a deeper, fuller understanding of one's environment, for an appreciation of how natural things live and react can help us to live better in the natural environment we too are part of. One obvious aspect of the immediacy of Biology is the concern for plants that produce a major part of our food supply. Farmers, gardeners, nursery men need to "know about plants". BIOLOGY HAS MANY BRANCHES Zoology, the science of animal study, gives us an insight into the animal world, our world too: man may be divine, but he is also an animal. Birds, their songs, their migrations, the many facets of their lives are fascinating subjects. When a moth bumps against a lighted window of a late evening, when a butterfly sips nectar from a flower, our interest is aroused. Entomology, the study of insects, 25 ' �CLUES Across 1. (12,5) 9. (3) 10. (5) 12. {3) 13. (5) 14. (5) 16. (5) 18. (5) 19. 21. 22. 24. 25. 27. (7) (5) (5) (4) (3) (4) The distance from earth to sun is one of these See 2 down Quadratic solutions useful to plants An unknown angle - the 21st Greek letter Einstein ... a unified field theory just before he died The reflectivity of a fabric Viscera and other bits When fruits do so, there is a synthesis of fructose The father of sterilization A high-pressure man Interference used by a piano tuner Gas for a sign at no. 10 A current measure 15 over 30 42. Down 1. {6,3,8) 2. (3) 3. (5) 4. (4) 5. (4) 6. (5) 7. (3) 8. {70, 7) 10. (5) 11. (5) 13. (5) 15. (5) 17. (4) 19. (7) 20. (7) 21. (5) 28. 29. 30. 32. 34. 35. (4) (4) (4) (3) (4) (4) 37. 38. 39. 41. 44. (4) (7) (5) (5) (5) 45. (3) 47. (5) 48. (3) 49. (7, A leading actor in the night sky A bitter liliaceous genus Phragmites communis in a clarinet The cry of the genus Corvus Acid magnesium silicate The useless male of a hymenopterous or human species A usually fast ungulate What the fruit does to the pip Rough points of lands A mechanical man A chair carried on two poles which had a great influence on 19 across A charge-carrier A large ungulate with a short elephant-like trunk Archimedes lived long this 7OJ The powers of e that equal the numbers in question /5/ # Equal mechanical concepts that are always mutually contrary If 2 across were to run down, it would begin to 2 down sideways (viz: precession)! An auricular window When new, I am nearly black, but the older I get, the more I shine until I'm full More than one Fe/is Kelp is a plant found here, relative to the surface Not exactly Maxwell's daemon, but a close relative Elementary laboratories provide basic skills in their use A palindromic electronic device A low woody plant (or a drink) The area drained by a river and its tributaries The position of fluorine in the table of elements The leaf-bearing axis of a plant The fifth member of the methane series Do chemists use them to answer back? A geological structure associated with salt and oil is sometimes this 23. (5) 25. {3) 26. (3) 31. (5) 33. (4) 34. (5) 36. (5) 37. (5) 40. (5) 41. (5) 43. (4) 44. (4) 46. (3) 48. (3) Lactuca sativa often forms the main part of this green dish A spark between carbons A foot of one 5 down Chemicals of current controversy Jelly for growing "bugs" A projection that fits a mortice Parliament has power to make laws, e.g., about 31 down To cut off The track of four 26 downs In a circle, we all measure the same The rank of Bertrand Russell (he was third) To produce related frequencies with the vocal chords A hard dry indehiscent fruit formed from a syncarpous gynaeceum; and an eccentric Fraxinus excelsior; and what is left after it is burnt Solution in next issue (or in desperation, Phone: 807 - 345-2121, Extension 529) 26 �CRYPTIC CROSSWORD NO TRICKS, NO ANAGRAMS. AN ADVANCED CLASS PROJECT MAYBE? 1 2 3 6 27 7 8 �COMPUTER CENTRE TOURS Academic use of the computer slows down during April, May and June - this is convenient for the many groups of visitors who come at this time. Computer Centre tours are given to high school, pub Iic school and any other groups who wish to come. In addition, for the last two years a typewriter terminal has been circulated through a number of Thunder Bay High Schools - spending a week or two weeks in each. Connected to the Computer by telephone this terminal gives students an opportunity to use the university APL system in the school environment. Their teachers have been making good instructional use of the system. 3. Watch that there is a symbolic solution followed by the tabulation of data. A problem without symbolic solution can receive no more than 60% of the marks remaining after (1) and (2) . 4. Watch the numerical solution for powers of 10, irrational numbers, and wrong units. An answer like 18,000,000 is not acceptable, because it does not specify the number of significant figures. An answer like 18,000,000 ± 2% is acceptable. 5. Never deduct a mark without making a comment. However brief, make a comment. DO NOT USE! or ? on their own. ACADEMIC COMPUTER SERVICES ACADEMIC USER'S GUIDE THE BLUE GOURAMI The Academic User's Guide has been updated. Last year due to budget restrictions one copy only was sent to each department. This proved unsatisfactory in that many of these copies got lost and never surfaced again. This year all academic users will get a copy. (Continued from page 24) APPENDIX A. 42 1. Rubbing CONSULTATION SERVICE Users (or non-users) requiring advice or information related to academic usage of the computer should contact the manager of Academic Computer Services (Mr. Watson, Ext. 383, Room MB1040} between the hours of 9:00 a.m. - 12:00 noon, 1:00 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. Mr. Davis (Ext. 316, Room MB1039} is also available for consultation during the same times. X 35 11 X 35 13 X 35 12 ~ 2. Clasping 50 T38"" 46 3. Spawning 138 B. Chi Square ( Observed • Expected) 2 1. Rubbing (13-11) 2 11 0.36 2. Clasping (10 • 13) 2 _ 1_3 _ _ 0.69 3. Spawning (12 • 12) 2 12 0.00 Expected A DOCUMENT FOUND IN A COPPER CYLINDER PHYSICS RULES FOR MARKERS 1. Expected x2 It is necessary that the solution to a problem contain all connecting steps, written in more or less comple'te English. No problem without these steps can receive more than 60%. C. d f .36 + .69 .00 + degrees of freedom (Rows - 1) X (Columns - 1) (2 - 1) X (3 - 1) 2 2. 1.05 A diagram must appear in all problems. No problem without a diagram can receive more than 60% of the marks remaining after (1 }. The End. 28 �LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS GAZETTE serving Northwestern Ontario Vol. II No.2 29 �EDITORIAL HINTS FOR BEGINNING TEACHERS By W. Eames It is in one sense a sad occasion to see the Lakehead University Mathematics Gazette (serving Northwestern Ontario)swallowed up in a more comprehensive publication. On the other hand, it has truly been a pleasure to see the demand for it grow, and to hear expressions of gratitude from those who have been kind enough to call it useful. We will continue to be available to assist your new editor, Dr. Hart, in every way possible, and we should like to take this opportunity to exhort our readers to continue sending in articles just as before. Our thanks go out to those who have generously contributed their articles, and time, in past issues. When Professor Black told me that I would be expected to offer you suggestions - helpful hints he calls them - on the teaching of Mathematics, my first impulse was to leave town. I had no suggestions whatsoever, other than the obvious ones like "don't assign any problems you can't do" and "when you haven't had time to prepare a lesson, give a test". But you are as familiar with these strategems as I am, so I asked my first year class here to help me. I asked them for any suggestions they might have regarding the teaching of Mathematics in High School; in my article I will simply pass these suggestions on and comment on them. Several students mentioned the "different terminology" used here; we really should get together and decide on a common nomenclature, but it shouldn't be necessary. Most of Mathematics is, or will be, couched in the terms of N. Bourbaki, and these are what we use here. Many of you are familiar with the work of L. Felix in bringing Bourbaki to the schools - indeed, she is required reading for most Mathematics teachers in Europe and undoubtedly had great influence here. Difficulties over terminology are absurd, but can involve a student in real difficulty. Many students mentioned that their teachers had used tutorial and seminar methods with great success, that their teachers had encouraged them to use the school library, to actively participate in learning, and to study well outside the syllabus. But most students appear to have had an arid time of it; "more watching than doing" is a phrase one of them used that sums it up for the majority. Many students were quite bitter about the lack of enthusiasm of their teachers, but I should think this is not a problem with younger teachers. I merely suggest that you consider breaking the class into small groups which would discuss problems, with the teacher intervening only if asked. (Several students mentioned that this is done at Lakeview and is a great success.) I suggest teacher-aided discovery, more library projects (one of our better students informed me that she had never seen the inside of her school library!) and more willingness to go off the beaten track. Why not have them consider some L. Dale Black 30 �simple game theory (does your library have a copy of the "Compleat Strategyst"?),give them topics like "the groups generated by various wallpaper patterns", "modern geometries': "the relations between simple switching circuits and logic". Even number theory can provide interesting and elementary topics - Davenport's book The Higher Arithmetic is a good source here. Perhaps your library subscribes to the Mathematical Gazette - if not, it should, and there is a very interesting book published by Unesco in 1966 - New Trends in not 0. How do we use such a condition? The obvious answer is we must divide by a. This is our reflex action when confronted by a non-0 number. (As an aside, if it's a calculus problem, we use I a I as the £ in a continuity or convergence argument. Perhaps this is the only difference between algebra and calculus - the way we use non-0 numbers.) Thus, we look around at the surrounding facts to find something to divide a into. It is by the continual repetition of points like this that develop a student's intuition and powers of analysis. So, your students must be given a feeling for the mechanics of a proof; it is not enough for them merely to be able to reproduce a proof. And, most important, they must realize that Mathematics is proving; it is not manipulating numbers and substituting for x and comparing with the answers in the back of the book. It is a game you play with abstract concepts which_ you bend to your will; it is a game they must enjoy. t Mathematics Teaching. Another minor suggestion: students here often have trouble taking notes in lectures; they have no practice in this. It might be worthwhile to give informal talks during which the students are expected to take notes. It will be hard in the beginning. Some students will find it impossible (you may be surprised - some very good students just cannot absorb oral information), but it will be rewarding, even for those who do not continue on to University. Now, let me come to the major suggestion. Nearly all my students found this fault in their previous schooling; there was not enough theory, there was too much emphasis on numerical working, type problems and unthinking manipulation. One mentioned that "Math in school is arithmetic". I hope this was an exaggeration. When it came to a proof, quote, "Math teachers told us to memorize" again ' teachers ask, "do you understand this proof", then laugh and say - "if you don't understand it, don't worry about it" '. This is unforgivable. Mathematics is thought, proof and deduction, not blind manipulation of meaningless squiggles, and all of us here know that. Tell your students - if you don't understand a proof, do worry about it. As teachers, you must help them in analyzing proofs. Point out the common guideposts in a proof. Why does the proof proceed this way? Can you think of any other way it could go? Point out the various options which are open at each stage of a proof: is the next step in the proof inexorable? is it the only reasonable path to follow? Try a few blind alleys. Point out where each of the given conditions is used. Are any of the hypotheses used twice? Are some ,never used at all? (I aways feel a proof is unsatisfactory if any condition is used more than once it is certainly not a pleasing proof if it is not economical - and certainly the statement of the theorem is unsatisfactory if some condition is never used.) Suppose, in some theorem, we have the condition that a certain number, say, a, is COMMENTS ON THE SNOW PLOW PROBLEMS The article on snow plow problems contributed by Professor Math imaki to "The Gazette, volume 3 has aroused some favourable fan mail but not, regrettably, a simple solution to the second problem as requested. The learned professor would still like to obtain such a solution so please, if you have any thoughts on the subject send them to the editor. As far as we know, the second problem - the one involving two snow plows - has never been published before. The first problem appeared in "Ingenious Mathematical Problems and Methods" by L.A. Graham (Dover Books), and as E275 in the American Mathematical Monthly, the solution being in the December 1937 issue; we are indebted to Mr. L.j. Upton of Mississauga for these references. Professor Mathimaki first encountered the problem in a pub, in Kingston. It seemed to be fairly wellknown to calculus students at Queens in the fifties. (We would like to know where Mathemaki bought his second plough, which appears to have the capability of travelling faster than light! - Ed.) 31 �WHO NEEDS A COMPUTER! If clearly written APL notation can be a help in communicating mathematical ideas - why does one need a computer at all when using APL as a teaching aid? Dr. Paul Penfield of M.I.T. in a recent paper on his use of APL as a notation in an Electrical Engineering course reported that his students felt they learned little from going to the computer. They learned most from clarifying their thoughts into APL before they reached the computer. Of course, the same fact is true for a student writing in FORTRAN - he learns most while writing his program not while running it even though it is more difficult clearly to express one's thoughts in FORrRAN. The computer really serves two purpose here; firstly it motivates the student to write his program since he can make use of it; secondly it tirelessly tests his work, isolating mistakes and correcting misconceptions. The computer is still a glamorous creature to many students who are eager to use it. Many thoroughly enjoy using APL. It is, however, only a tool. What matters most is not the machine, but the thought behind what it is used for. t The success of APL/360 as a computer system, while effectively spreading the use of the language, has considerably obscured its purpose. APL was intended originally to simplify communication between human beings, both as a publication and a teaching notation. Common features of problems being solved by computer were represented by powerful new primitive functions, enabling concise and elegant descriptions of algorithms to be produced. Iverson, the author of APL, also demonstrated that his notation could be used to describe the computer itself. In 1962 he published the paper, "A Common Language for Hardware, Software and Applications'~ and in 1964, together with Falkoff and Sussenguth published "A Formal Description of System/360". This latter paper concisely described the hardware operation of the I BM System/360 computer. APL was therefore being used as a publication and teaching notation before any computer implementation. In fact the language was called "A Programming Language" and not "A Computer Programming Language". Iverson also intended that his notation should have an impact upon Mathematics as well as Computer Sceince. The language is a development of the notation of Algebra. Ambiguities have been removed, useful functions added and a more unified approach to the manipulation of arrays provided. Iverson has successfully used his notation in the teaching of Mathematics - again without necessarily using a computer. He has also published texts in both Elem-. entary Algebra and Calculus using APL notation. One might expect to find others using APL as a useful notation in Computer Science, Mathematics and mathematically based disciplines. So far, however the use of APL as a notation has been small. Without the dramatic success of APL as a computer programming language, the notation might have been ignored for a good many more years. The first computer implementations of APL were produced as an experimental aid to the development of the notation. From that point APL also became a means for a human to communicate with a computer, rather than another human. APL/360 in particular very quickly had great success as a computer programming language and system. Users became enthusiastic over their interactions with the computer to such an extent that they lost interest in communicating with each other. It is unfortunate that all present APL implementations execute programs faster when the program is made more difficult to read. This has further obscured the real purpose of APL. INTRODUCING THE NEW COSTING SYSTEM Users will find their output contains some new statistics including a dollar cost. These statistics refer to the new charging system which will be run concurrently with the old system for a trial period. An extensive study has been made to obtain realistic and accurate charging for every aspect of computer usage. Use of the fast core will cost more than use of slow core. Usage during peak periods of the day will be more expensive than overnight runs. APL users will be charged half the previous rates per connect hour - but charges will be made for CPU time and workspace storage. Overall, the computer centre expects that charges for computer centre services will not change substantially. If the costs are similar - why have a new costing system? We need as realistic and fair charging scheme as possible for the benefit of external userswhose use of facilities is expanding. The new scale of charges is contained in the Academic User's Guide section 2.4. 32 �COMPUTER SCIENCE IN THE SCHOOLS By J. S. Griffith I feel that all children should know something about the nature and uses of computers in our present day world. Rather than start by a general discussion of computers or a history of their evolution, I consider the first step in such a program should be to get the class to run programs on a "real live" computer, either individually or in groups. These programs can be devised by the teacher, but should demonstrate something of the speed and storage capabilities of modern computers. Let me assume for the rest of this article that access to the Lakehead University Computer Centre (either by the physical presence of students at APL terminals or by preparing punched cards and FORTRAN programs) is possible. JA=KA-IA*10 PRINT, JA IF{I.LT.100) GO TO 1 STOP END Try your own program for addition using tens and units - remember to test for carry of one. C SIMPLE L<l)<l)P l=D 1=1+1 IF {1.EQ.11) G<l) T<l) 2 PRINT, I INTRODUCTORY PROGRAMS C GQ T<l) 1 WHAT IS HAPPENING? 2 A=l ST<l)P END 8=2 C=3 D=A+B+C C PRINT, A,B,C,D 10 G.C.F. OF 75 AND 120 1=0 8 J=25-I IF{120/J*J. EQ. 120. AND.75/J*J.EQ.75) PRINT, J D=B/C PRINT, A,B,C,D 1=1+1 STOP IF {I.LT. 75) G<l) T<l) 10 END ST<l)P C END SEPARATION OF 100 NUMBERS INTO TENS AND UNITS C l=O Fl RST 20 MULTIPLES OF 2,3,4,5,6,9, 10 PRINT, 'MULTIPLES OF 2--OF 3--OF 4-OF 5--OF 6--OF 9--OF 10' READ, KA N=l PRINT, KA 1=1+1 5 N2=2*N N3=3*N C FINDING THE TENS DIGIT N4=4*N IA=KA/10 N5=5*N PRINT, IA N6=6*N N9=9*N C FINDING THE UNITS DIGIT N10=10*N (Continued on next page) 33 �asking him to figure out what it does, then run it: discovery by experimentation). PRINT, N2,N3,N4,N5,N6,N9,N10 IF (N.LE.20) TQ T(/) 5 STOP References include: END Computers and high school teaching, J.S. Griffith, Lakehead University Once they have used the computer, there should be sufficient material available to demonstrate, from their programs, the organization of arithmetical operations, branches, loops, flow charts. Then one can look at non numerical applications e.g. flow charts for biological development, getting to school in the morning, dancing, setting up a tent, using timetables, dictionaries, literary card indices. This may be followed by work on the social impact of computers e.g. data manipulation (payroll, accounting), data banks and information retrieval (medical records, criminal records, license plate records, libraries, stock control), real-time and on-line control (seat reservations, banking, machine control of production processes), problem solving and models of physical situations (nuclear reactorssafer to test models numerically than physically; stellar models - impossible to build in a laboratory or wait a billion years to observe evolution, weather forecasting), future possibilities. Ask the class to try to find a large company or manufacturing concern that does not use computers. Look at family bills for evidence of computer activity. Fortran IV with WATFOR and WATIV, Cress, Dirksen, Graham, Prentice-Hall Ten Statement FORTRAN plus FORTRAN IV, Kennedy and Solomon, Prentice-Hall and, of course, any other books you can find. The pages of the "Gazette" seem to be an appropriate place for the interchange of ideas and programs. A reference for the future impact is C.S. Wallia "Toward Century 21" Basic Books. t SQUARE PROBLEM Suppose that you have a square room and that you wish to tile it with square tiles, not necessarily all of the same size. How many tiles could you buy to do the job and not have an excess? For example, could you tile the room with 6 tiles? 9 ·tiles? 5 tiles? Certainly you can always tile the room with 1 tile. Determine for which positive integers n you can tile the room with n square tiles. - J.H.M. Whitfield Other topics include: The sort of jobs associated with computers (operational staff, data preparation, data control, tape librarian, computer operator, programmers, systems analysts and designers, and engineers). History of computers, (abacus, addition and multiplication tables, slide rule, desk calculator, accounting (Hollerith) machines, digital and analogue computers. Values, transistors ... ) Numerical analysis (how do errors propagate in various operations, linear equations, numerical integration, (f (x) =0), statistics. How computers work - logical principles (Boolean algebra and Turing machines via functional matrices), construction of simple circuits. Data processing (Systems analysis, fast finding, form designs, design of data collection, report writing, systems flow charts, decision tables, programming, coding, testing, documentation, implementation. File handling, editing, relating, up-dating on magnetic tape, cards or disc. Sorting and collating files, information retrieval, data banks, terminals. Data transmission, invoicing with sales analysis, payroll, medical records). Many other programs may be obtained from the following references (try giving the child a program, WHAT'S WRONG HERE? Below, a "proof" is given that all triangles are isosceles. Take a triangle ABC. Let s be the bisector of i: ACE and n the perpendicular bisector of AB. Let E be the intersection of s and n. c Consider i: B D n MDE and /J.BDE. We have AD ADE DE Therefore 1 BD BDE DE MDE Consider now = /J.BDE. MEC and /J.BCE. From (1), we obtain AE BE. Furthermore, CE CE, i: ACE = i,BCE. Since both~ CAE and ~ CBE are acute, we conclude that /J.AEC= ABCE, and therefore AC= BC. This means MBC is isosceles. Of course, we know that not every triangle is isosceles, so something in this "proof" must be wrong. Can you find out what? 34 �EXPERIMENTAL GEOMETRY [ FIGURE 1) B B' ol----------------------Io· ~ A Take a rectangular paper strip, A A' BB' {Fig. 1). Draw a center line DD' 11 A A'. Now twist it once, as in Fig. 2. [ FIGURE 2 J B Without a further twist, put the edges A Band B' A' together, such that A and B' coincide, and A' and B {Fig. 3). Glue it along A B. Then cut it through along DD'. A' oJ-------~------ Jo· A B' [ FIGURE 3) What happens? What happens if, before gluing, you twist it once more {Fig. 4)? [ FIGURE 4) FIGURE 1 C' D' FIGURE 2 E,E' - - - - - - - - -, - - - F ,F' ............... D,D' .c,c'.,..,..,..,. __________ , ,I ,, Draw Fig. 1, where ABCD and ABCD' are squares, ADE, AD'E', BCF, BC'F' equilateral triangles. Add the shaded pieces for later gluing. Cut the figure out and fold it along the thick lines. Then glue it together such that D and D', C and C', E and E', F and F' coincide {Fig. 2). Do the same thing once more, so you get two congruent solids. Can you put them together to form a regular tetrahedon {a pyramid whose faces are four congruent equilateral triangles, Fig. 3)? I A FIGURE 3 35 �COMPUTERS PLAY CHESS: CAN YOU DO BETTER? United States Computer Chess Championship Boston, Massachusetts August 13- 15, 1972 WHITE: Northwestern University BLACK: Columbia University (Larry Atkin, Keith Gorlen, David Slate) (Monty Newborn, George Ar.r'lold) Computer: CDC 6400 Location: Evanston, 111. Computer: Data General Nova 800 Location: Sheraton-Boston Hotel Time 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Time White (sec.} Black (sec.} P- K4 N-KB3 P- Q4 NxP N-KB3 N-83 Q-Q2 N- Q5 P- QN4 P- B3 NxB B- B4 BxB N- N5 0- 0 N- B3 R- Ql Q- K2 B- N2 N- Q2 P- QB4 Q- Q3 P- N3 B- R3 R(Rl}-Nl R- Kl K- N2 P- R3 R- N3 K- R2 Q- K2 R- KB3 P- R4 K- Rl K- N2 NxR B- B1 B- N5 B- Q8 ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) (235) (140) (199) (181) ( 74) ( 64) ( 49) ( 99) ( 69) ( 92) (115) ( 56) ( 56) (115) (108) (135} ( 95) ( 91) {119} ( 70) (122) ( 88) ( 75) ( 80) ( 94) (115) (101) (130) ( 80) ( 88) (110) ( 65) (108) (106) (176} P- QB4 N- QB3 PxP P-K4 Q-N3 B-B4 P-Q3 Q-Ql B- Q5 B- N3 PxN B- K3 PxB Q-Q2 P- KR3 1) 1) 1) 1) ( 1) {269) (227) (144) (143) (147) ( 44) {207) ( 39) ( 87) ( 58) (220) (245} (230) (195) ( 67} (246} (154} (162) ( 90) (257) ( 89) ( 69) (257) ( 63) (249) ( 94) ( 63) (249) ( 78) {216) ( 52) (251) ( 63) {286) 0- 0- 0 N- B3 Q- QB2 N- K2 P- Q4 P- Q5 N- N3 Q- K2 K- B2 R- R2 R- Q2 Q- Ql N- Nl Q- N4 R- B2 N- B3 P- R4 N- N5 Q- K2 RxR Q- B3 K- Q3 Q- B2 R- Rl Time White 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 36 (sec. } (157) BxP N- N5 ( 97) P- N5 (185) (195) R- QNl ( 94) R- KB1 (173) Q- B3 ( 78) Q- R3 (135) B- B5 N- B7 (146) R-Bl (155) ( 26) N-Q6 (110) P-N6 R-Kl (149) K-Nl ( 36) R-KBl (110) N- B7 ( 99) NxR (106} P- B3 ( 56) K- B2 ( 67} ( 96} R- QNl K- N2 (109} (100) K- B2 R- N5 ( 88) R- N2 ( 78) (234) Q- N4 ( 80) Q- N5 ( 85) R- Q2 ( 39) PxQ ( 74) R- Q3 P- R4 (129) P- R5 ( 79) P- R6 ( 50) PxP (138) P- R7 (105) ( 52) R- R3 P- N7 ( 27) P- R8=Q ( 32) R- R7 Mate( 33) Time Black (sec. } K- K2 Q- Kl Q- QBl R- KBl R- K1 R- B1 K- Q2 R- Rl R- R2 N- R3 Q- B2 Q- B3 R- Rl N- N5 R- R3 QxP (K4) NxN Q- QB3 K- Ql Q- Q2 N- B4 Q- Bl K- Q2 K- B3 K- Q2 Q- B3 QxQ K- Ql N(N3) - K2 P- N3 K- Q2 PxP K- B1 K- N2 K- Rl KxP K- B2 ( 63) (241) (111) ( 82) (335) (135) ( 82) ( 94) (104) ( 88) (234) ( 69) (126) (116) (299) (151) ( 75) (102) (128} (119} ( 75} (232} ( 99) (288} ( 80) ( 39) (227) ( 60) (165) ( 66) (211) ( 57) (231) (129) ( 85) ( 1) ( 1) �AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MATHEMATICS LEARNING A COURSE OF GEOMETRY FOR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Pub. 1963 - Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London. Pub. 1970 - Cambridge University Press. Z.P. Dienes D. Pedoe This book would be suitable for students specializing in mathematics for elementary teachers. It would also be a good reference book for students of child psychology. Dienes's treatment of mathematical concepts learned as a function of play is fascinating, but rather too intricate for the general student. The book is certainly thought-provoking although one who has little background in mathematics might find it difficult to follow. The chapter on educational implications is significant and would be worth-while reading for any teacher. Many of us, having studied under graduate mathematicians at a time when geometry was at a low ebb, find ourselves short of examples, intuition, and a sense of direction about how high school geometry can be developed and directed. This book was written as a text for the undergraduate course we should have taken and can assist us in picking up some of the ideas which are at the heart of geometry. The book is a large collection of elementary geometry in its many forms. Though the author concentrates on analytic geometry, including some use of vectors and a prelude to algebraic geometry, he uses a variety of approaches in proofs of the basic theorems, including pretty synthetic constructions when these are appropriate. The various chapters tend to be a bit disconnected, which makes it hard to see the material as a unified whole. However this situation does make it possible to dip into the middle sections on mappings of the plane, without extensive reading of the preceeding sections on coaxial systems etc. All of the essentials of euclidlean goemetry and projective geomentry are presented in some detail and there are regular, if somewhat difficult, exercises. Several sections, such as the nine point circle, or a pretty section on reflections, could even be read by high school students as they stand. This book is a fine reference and source book at a time when we need all the geometric intuition we can get, in order to digest the abstractions which are piling up around us. D. Botly HOW CHILDREN LEARN MATHEMATICS Pub. 1970 - The Macmillan Co. New York Richard W. Copeland Copeland's stress on the learning of mathematics rather than on the teaching is directly in line with the type of programme advocated by an increasing number of educators and classroom teachers. "How Children Learn Mathematics" would make excellent preparatory reading for any course for teachers of elementary mathematics. Although the works of Piaget are very detailed, Copeland has developed Piaget's approach clearly and concisely and applied it to the teacher's role in a way which is sure to help any teacher who reads this book. Copeland achieves a fine balance of theory and practicality. This book should be available for all Education students in the elementary field. Walter Whiteley D. Botly 37 �n 0 0 Figure 1 Figure 2a Figure 2b A PERPETUAL PROBLEM Every common mechanic has something to say in his craft about good and evil, useful and useless, but these practical considerations never enter into the purview of the mathematician. 1 With the above in mind, one may be enticed to join Jean Bernoulli, Sr., and Leonardo da Vinci for a few minutes and enter the realm of the perpetual-motionmongers. 2 g ~ Though it is an unpromising venture from a physical point of view it can be entertaining mathematics. Consider a U-shaped vessel made of a non-flexible material, such as a tin can, with a heavy steel ball inside and covered on top with an elastic, watertight lid as shown in figure 1. Observe that when this container is placed under water the amount of the water displaced - and hence the buoyancy - is dependent on its position; when upright as in figure 2a the lid is pressed inward by the water pressure, while when the container is upside down as in 2b, the weight of the ball stretches the cover outward thus increasing the buoyancy. Attach an even number of these containers to an endless belt on two pulleys as shown in figure 3 and submerge the entire system under water. Aristippus of Cyrene, quoted by HICKS, R.D. "Stoic and Epicurean"; (New York, Charles Schribner's Sons, 1910) p. 210 2 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1967, Vol. 17, p. 639-41 Figure 3 38 �Competition This is an open competition in which EVEN TEACHERS may compete! FILL ME IN AND MAIL ME TODAY! NAME ADDRESS AGE, IF UNDER 21 Write numbers in order of preference I would like to read articles on: Pure Science Applied Science Technology Jobs People & Personalities Sports Puzzles Music Games Other _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ MY OPINION OF THE FIRST ISSUE OF "CARET" IS: A GOOD TITLE FOR "CARET" WOULD BE ( THANK YOU FOR HELPING US. - The Editor ) 39 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review: Volume 1 Number 1 Subject The topic of the resource Universities Description An account of the resource Caret: Lakehead University Science Review. A publication produced by Lakehead University Faculty of Science and distributed especially to high schools and other universities. Volume 1 Number 1, January 1973. Articles on a variety of topics: The science of the body and athletics Interview with Lakehead University Glassblower Ken Sumpter Whisky distillation in Scotland and Ireland Opinions of Science at LU Overview of the Liberal Science Program and its courses Students views of the Liberal Science Program Reproductive behaviour of the blue gourami. Biology and pollution Mathematics Gazette Also contains photographs and crossword puzzles. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Faculty of Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973-01 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Text https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/2e478aad41ab8386b87398a2d6e3925c.jpg 961fa462d85b696069431ef69486c4f6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Collection Description An account of the resource Photographs from Lakehead University's history: people, events, and campus. Moving Image A series of visual representations imparting an impression of motion when shown in succession. Examples include animations, movies, television programs, videos, zoetropes, or visual output from a simulation. Player HTML embed code <iframe width="480" height="270" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/RD7-cmjDqk4" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe> Imported Thumbnail If a thumbnail images was imported for an embedded video, its id is recorded here and the thumbnail is hidden on pages displaying the embedded video itself. https://i.ytimg.com/vi/RD7-cmjDqk4/default.jpg Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University's First Convocation, May 6, 1965 Description An account of the resource Video of the very first convocation held for Lakehead University, May 6, 1965. Convocation was held at St. Patrick's Cathedral in Fort William. 76 graduands received diplomas or degrees. The ceremony also sees the installation of Senator Norman M. Paterson as Chancellor, and an address by Claude Bissell, president of the University of Toronto. Video is just under 16 minutes long, without any original sound. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965-05-06 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived http://youtu.be/RD7-cmjDqk4 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="https://www.youtube.com/static?template=terms">Standard YouTube License</a> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lakehead University Type The nature or genre of the resource Video A Truly Canadian Experience Barri Canada College higher education Lakehead Lakeheadu MyLakehead Ontario Orillia Post-secondary Research University school Study in Canada Thunder Bay Top University University https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/13ac7250e637af40ec87009bbb268133.jpg 8083d438e584a3de56171a84f26a5654 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/a761c1a41daffe169f94cb5b875430c6.jpg 6a4f4bbf4c84284af813ce804934be2c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Smith Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Description An account of the resource Smith Dean, son of Samuel Corban Dean and Eliza Hall Kelly Dean. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/4cc641c586e8f97e868c911486084f05.jpg 6a1ffe8a13f5def71822963347d46d18 https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/c3dee81de004a89e55c840493dab3d2e.jpg 6304bea6477a3712300b814be8d8b489 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eliza Hall Kelly Description An account of the resource Eliza Hall Kelly, wife of Samuel Corban Dean. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image Subject The topic of the resource People https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/e43bde2345a558886daddf1053b08837.jpg 241026d7acb18328ca06e892fb89c34c https://digitalcollections.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/48117c619801af699ded266f704b9f12.jpg edc45bd028af46a1acb30e02a8074d05 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Samuel Corban Dean Subject The topic of the resource People Description An account of the resource Samuel Corban Dean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J L Richmond, Port Hope Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPG Type The nature or genre of the resource Still image Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Canada - Ontario - Port Hope